Abstract
Portugal is in the middle of a major transformation of its energy supply, which has been shaped by internal resource constraints, growing environmental concerns, and the dynamics of European integration. Portugal’s past choices – the investment in hydropower and the refusal of nuclear energy – and the lack of an endowment of resources have constrained the Portuguese energy policy. With the accession to the European Union in 1986, environmental concerns moved up the Portuguese policy agenda. The EU’s push for a common electricity market influenced a set of policies oriented toward the liberalization of the energy market, which was centralized, monopolistic, and public owned. The investment in renewable energy gained momentum in the 2000s, led by the Portuguese government and EDP, the (then) publicly owned energy company, supported by a public discourse on climate change and energy policy imbued with economic rationality. The financial crisis that hit Portugal in 2010 led to a temporary stall in the promotion of the use of energy from renewable energy sources (RES), but new market-based support schemes, such as photovoltaic solar auctions, have fostered the recent new investment in renewables.
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Legislation
Decree Law 104/2010. Establishes the procedure applicable to the extinction of regulated tariffs. Ministério da Economia, da Inovação e do Desenvolvimento, Diário da República n.° 190/2010, Série I de 2010-09-29, pp. 4327–4329. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/104/2010/09/29/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 118-A/2010. Simplifies the regime applicable to the production of electricity with micro production units. Ministério da Economia, da Inovação e do Desenvolvimento, Diário da República n.° 207/2010, 1° Suplemento, Série I de 2010-10-25, pp. 4834-(2)-4834-(15). https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/118-a/2010/10/25/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 13/2014. Changes Decree Law 104/2010 and sets new rules for transitory tariffs in the electricity sold to final consumers. Ministério do Ambiente, Ordenamento do Território e Energia, Diário da República n.° 15/2014, Série I de 2014-01-22, pp. 469–469. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/13/2014/01/22/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 141/2010. Considering the Estratégia Nacional da Energia 2020, defines the targets of renewable energy in final consumption and partially transposes Directive 2009/28/CE, of the European Parliament and the Council. Diário da República n.° 253/2010, Série I de 2010-12-31. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/141/2010/p/cons/20200817/pt/html
Decree Law 15/2015. Changes Decree Laws 74/2012, 75/2012, 66/2010, 104/2010, and changes the transitory tariffs applicable to the supply of natural gas and electricity to final consumers with low gas volume consumption and/or low voltage. Ministério do Ambiente, Ordenamento do Território e Energia, Diário da República n.° 21/2015, Série I de 2015-01-30, pp. 628–631. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/15/2015/01/30/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 162/2019. Approves the applicable legal framework to the self-consumption of renewable energy, by partial transposition of Directive 2018/2001. Ambiente e Transição Energética -Presidência do Conselho de Ministros. Diário da República n.° 206/2019, Série I de 2019-10-25, pp. 45–62. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/162/2019/10/25/p/dre
Decree Law 168/99. Reviews the applicable regulatory regime for the production of electric energy in the Independent Electric System, with utilizes renewable resources or industrial, agricultural, or urban residues. Ministério da Economia, Diário da República n.° 115/1999, Série I-A de 1999-05-18, pp. 2619–2628. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/168/1999/05/18/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 178/2015. Changes Decree Law 29/2006, which establishes common rules for the internal energy market. Ministério do Ambiente, Ordenamento do Território e Energia, Diário da República n.° 167/2015, Série I de 2015-08-27, pp. 6428–6429. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/178/2015/08/27/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 182/95. Establishes the organization of the National Electric System (SEN). Ministério da Indústria e Energia, Diário da República n.° 172/1995, Série I-A de 1995-07-27, pp. 4772–4783. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/182/1995/07/27/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 185/2003. Establishes the rules for the creation of a free and competitive electric market. Ministério da Economia, Diário da República n.° 191/2003, Série I-A de 2003-08-20, pp. 5196–5199. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/185/2003/08/20/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 188/88. Creates the incentive system for the rational utilization of energy (SIURE), Diário da República n.° 123/1988, Série I de 1988-05-27, Ministério da Indústria e Energia, pp. 2284–2289.
Decree Law 189/88. Establishes norms related to the production of electric energy by singular persons or collective persons of public or private right, Diário da República n.° 123/1988, Série I de 1988-05-27, Ministério da Indústria e Energia, pp. 2289–2296.
Decree Law 195/94. Creates the Energy Program. Ministério da Indústria e Energia, Diário da República n.° 165/1994, Série I-A de 1994-07-19, pp. 3906–3910. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/195/1994/07/19/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 198/2000. Reviews the legislation of the electric sector (changes several decree laws). Ministério da Economia, Diário da República n.° 195/2000, Série I-A de 2000-08-24, pp. 4297–4299. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/198/2000/08/24/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 20/81. Establishes incentives for the self-production of electric energy, Ministério da Indústria e Energia, Diário da República n.° 23/1981, Série I de 1981-01-28, pp. 242-244 Decree Law 149/86, New redaction of DL 20/81, Ministério da Indústria e Comércio, Diário da República n.° 137/1986, Série I de 1986-06-18, pp. 1436–1437.
Decree Law 215-A/2012. Changes Decree Law 29/2006. Ministério da Economia e do Emprego, Diário da República n.° 194/2012, 1° Suplemento, Série I de 2012-10-08, pp. 5588-(2)-5588-(45). https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/215-a/2012/10/08/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 215-B/2012. Changes Decree Law 172/2006 and completes the transposition of Directive 2009/72/CE of the European Parliament and the Council, that establishes the common rules for the internal electricity market. Ministério da Economia e do Emprego, Diário da República n.° 194/2012, 1° Suplemento, Série I de 2012-10-08, pp. 5588-(45)-5588-(133). https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/215-b/2012/10/08/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 225/2007. Implements the renewable energy measures of the national energy strategy established in the Resolution of the Council of Ministers 169/2005. Ministério da Economia e da Inovação, Diário da República n.° 105/2007, Série I de 2007-05-31, pp. 3630–3638. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/225/2007/05/31/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 24/99. Reviews Decree Law 182/95, which had established the organization of the National Electric System. Ministério da Economia, Diário da República n.° 23/1999, Série I-A de 1999-01-28, pp. 551–552. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/24/1999/01/28/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 240/2004. Defines the cessation conditions for the energy acquisition contracts (CAE) and defines compensations. Ministério das Actividades Económicas e do Trabalho, Diário da República n.° 301/2004, Série I-A de 2004-12-27, pp. 7330–7345. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/240/2004/12/27/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 25/2012. Suspends the tenders for new power injections in the national electric grid (Rede Elétrica de Serviço Público). Ministério da Economia e do Emprego, Diário da República n.° 26/2012, Série I de 2012-02-06, pp. 589–590. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/25/2012/02/06/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 25/2013. Changes Decree Law 363/2007, which establishes the regime applicable to the production of electricity with micro production units, and Decree Law 34/2011, which establishes the regime applicable to the production of electricity with mini production units. Ministério da Economia e do Emprego, Diário da República n.° 35/2013, Série I de 2013-02-19, pp. 1037–1058. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/25/2013/02/19/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 250/86. Creates the incentive system for the rational utilization of energy and the development of new forms of energy, Diário da República n.° 194/1986, Série I de 1986-08-25, Ministério da Indústria e Comércio, pp. 2162–2166.
Decree Law 256/2012. Establishes conditions to ensure tariff stability. Ministério da Economia e do Emprego, Diário da República n.° 231/2012, Série I de 2012-11-29, pp. 6827–6829. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/256/2012/11/29/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 274-C/93. Regulates the public service concession of natural gas importation, transportation, and supply through the high pressure network, Ministério da Indústria e Energia, Diário da República n.° 181/1993, 2° Suplemento, Série I-A de 1993-08-04, pp. 4184-(6) a 4184-(13). https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/274-c/1993/08/04/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 29/2006. Establishes the general principles for the organization and operation of the national electric system, as well as the production, transportation, distribution, and commercialization of electricity, and for the organization of electricity markets. Diário da República n.° 33/2006, Série I-A de 2006-02-1. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/29/2006/p/cons/20201001/pt/html
Decree Law 312/2001. Defines the system that manages the reception capacity of the network of the Electric System of Public Service of the electric energy originating in the electroproduction centres of the Independent Electric System. Ministério da Economia, Diário da República n.° 284/2001, Série I-A de 2001-12-10, pp. 8016–8024. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/312/2001/12/10/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 313/95. Updates Decree Law 189/88, of May 27 (establishes measures related to the production of electric energy by individuals and legal persons covered by public or private law). Ministério da Indústria e Energia, Diário da República n.° 272/1995, Série I-A de 1995-11-24, pp. 7273–7276. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/313/1995/11/24/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 324/2011. Establishes the regime applicable to the production of electricity by mini production units. Ministério da Economia, da Inovação e do Desenvolvimento, Diário da República n.° 47/2011, Série I de 2011-03-08, pp. 1316–1325. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/34/2011/03/08/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 339-C/2001. Changes Decree Law 168/99, which reviews the regime applicable to the production of electricity in the independent electric system. Ministérios da Economia e do Ambiente e do Ordenamento do Território, Diário da República n.° 300/2001, 1° Suplemento, Série I-A de 2001-12-29, pp. 8520-(2)-8520-(3). https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/339-c/2001/12/29/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 33-A/2005. Changes Decree Law 189/88, by reviewing the remuneration of renewable power plants that deliver energy to the Portuguese Electric System, and defines procedures for assigning available power and deadlines for obtaining renewable power plant permits. Diário da República n.° 33/2005, 1° Suplemento, Série I-A de 2005-02-16, pp. 1180-(2) a 1180-(9). https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/33-a/2005/02/16/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 35/2013. Changes the compensation given to electricity producers covered by Decree Law 189/88. Ministério da Economia e do Emprego, Diário da República n.° 42/2013, Série I de 2013-02-28, pp. 1154–1165. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/35/2013/02/28/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 363/2007. Establishes the regime applicable to the production of electricity in units of micro-production. Ministério da Economia e da Inovação, Diário da República n.° 211/2007, Série I de 2007-11-02, pp. 7978–7984. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/363/2007/11/02/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 39/2010. Establishes the electric mobility regime, applicable to the organization, access, and implementation of electric mobility, as well as the rules for the creation of a pilot network of electric mobility. Ministério da Economia, da Inovação e do Desenvolvimento, Diário da República n.° 80/2010, Série I de 2010-04-26, pp. 1371–1386. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/39/2010/04/26/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 449/88. Changes some dispositions of law 46/77, of 8 July, related to the delimitation of sectors (including the energy sector). Diário da República n.° 284/1988, Série I de 1988-12-10, Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, pp. 4886–4887.
Decree Law 502/76. Creates the Eletricidade de Portugal – Empresa Pública – EDP, Ministério da Indústria e Tecnologia, Diário da República n.° 151/1976, Série I de 1976-06-30, pp. 1438–1447.
Decree Law 538/99. Establishes the legal framework of the co-generation activity. Ministério da Economia. Diário da República n.° 288/1999, Série I-A de 1999-12-13, pp. 8801–8809. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/538/1999/12/13/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 56/97. Reviews the legislation of the national electric sector (changes several decree laws). Ministério da Economia, Diário da República n.° 62/1997, Série I-A de 1997-03-14, pp. 1162–1207. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/56/1997/03/14/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 75/2012. Establishes the regime for the extinction of regulated tariffs in electricity contracts for clients in low tension and safeguards clients who are economically vulnerable. Ministério da Economia e do Emprego, Diário da República n.° 61/2012, Série I de 2012-03-26, pp. 1442–1445. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/75/2012/03/26/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 78/2011. Establishes common rules for the internal electricity market, transposing the Directive 2009/72 of the European Parliament and the Council. Ministério da Economia, da Inovação e do Desenvolvimento, Diário da República n.° 117/2011, Série I de 2011-06-20. pp. 3352–3381 https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/78/2011/06/20/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 94/2014. Establishes the regime applicable to the additional power or the repowering of existing equipment of electricity producers under a guaranteed remuneration regime. Ministério do Ambiente, Ordenamento do Território e Energia, Diário da República n.° 119/2014, Série I de 2014-06-24, pp. 3352–3356. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/94/2014/06/24/p/dre/pt/html
Decree Law 99/91. Establishes the legal framework for the production, transportation, and distribution of electric energy. Ministério da Indústria e Energia, Diário da República n.° 51/1991, Série I-A de 1991-03-02, pp. 1076–1080. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/99/1991/03/02/p/dre/pt/html
Law 105/2017. Establishes that household consumers can choose to remain in the regulated tariff regime. Assembleia da República. Diário da República n.° 167/2017, Série I de 2017-08-30, pp. 5212–5212. https://data.dre.pt/eli/lei/105/2017/08/30/p/dre/pt/html
Law 19/2014. Guidelines for the environmental policy. Diário da República n.° 73/2014, Série I de 2014-04-14. https://data.dre.pt/eli/lei/19/2014/p/cons/20140414/pt/html
Law 2002 of 1944. ‘Electric energy production should come from hydraulics’, Ministério das Obras Públicas e Comunicações, Diário do Govêrno n.° 285/1944, Série I de 1944-12-26, pp. 1311–1314.
Law 51/2010. Simplifies the procedure for the repowering of wind power stations, reviews the price regimes and mandates the installation of equipment to protect from voltage dips. Ministério da Economia, da Inovação e do Desenvolvimento, Diário da República n.° 98/2010, Série I de 2010-05-20, pp. 1740–1742. https://data.dre.pt/eli/dec-lei/51/2010/05/20/p/dre/pt/html
Law 51-A/2011. Eliminates the reduced VAT tax for electricity and natural gas. Assembleia da República, Diário da República n.° 189/2011, 1° Suplemento, Série I de 2011-09-30, pp. 4566-(2)-4566-(2). https://data.dre.pt/eli/lei/51-a/2011/09/30/p/dre/pt/html
Legislative order 11-B/95. Regulates how endogenous renewable energy resources can be exploited. Ministério da Indústria e Energia, Diário da República n.° 55/1995, 1° Suplemento, Série I-B de 1995-03-06, pp. 1228-(5) a 1228-(9). https://data.dre.pt/eli/despnorm/11-b/1995/03/06/p/dre/pt/html
Ordinance 364-A/2017. Changes several Decree Laws related to the extinction of transitory tariffs. Economia, Diário da República n.° 232/2017, 1° Suplemento, Série I de 2017-12-04, pp. 6510-(2)-6510-(2). https://data.dre.pt/eli/port/364-a/2017/12/04/p/dre/pt/html
Ordinance 39/2017. Changes the deadline for the extinction of transitory tariffs for the electricity supplied to low voltage clients. Economia, Diário da República n.° 19/2017, Série I de 2017-01-26, pp. 519–520. https://data.dre.pt/eli/port/39/2017/01/26/p/dre/pt/html
Resolution of the Assembly of the Republic 33-A/2004. Approves the Agreement, between the Portuguese Republic and the Kingdom of Spain for the creation of an Iberian Electricity Market, signed in Lisbon in 20 January 2004. Assembleia da República, Diário da República n.° 93/2004, 1° Suplemento, Série I-A de 2004-04-20, pp. 2386-(2)-2386-(10). https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolassrep/33-a/2004/04/20/p/dre/pt/html
Resolution of the Council of Ministers 154/2001. Approves the E4 Program, Energy Efficiency and Endogenous Energies. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, Diário da República n.° 243/2001, Série I-B de 2001-10-19, pp. 6648–6649. https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolconsmin/154/2001/10/19/p/dre/pt/html
Resolution of the Council of Ministers 169/2005. Approves the energy national strategy, Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, Diário da República n.° 204/2005, Série I-B de 2005-10-24, pp. 6168–6176. https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolconsmin/169/2005/10/24/p/dre/pt/html
Resolution of the Council of Ministers 2/2011. Launches ECO.AP (the energy efficiency program for the public administration) to reach 20% energy efficiency until 2020. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, Diário da República n.° 8/2011, Série I de 2011-01-12, pp. 270–271. https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolconsmin/2/2011/01/12/p/dre/pt/html
Resolution of the Council of Ministers 20/2013. Approves the national action plan for energy efficiency in the period 2013–2016 and the national action plan for renewable energy for the period 2013–2020. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, Diário da República n.° 70/2013, Série I de 2013-04-10, pp. 2022–2091. https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolconsmin/20/2013/04/10/p/dre/pt/html
Resolution of the Council of Ministers 29/2010. Approves the national energy strategy for 2020 (Estratégia Nacional para a Energia 2020). Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, Diário da República n.° 73/2010, Série I de 2010-04-15, pp. 1289–1296. https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolconsmin/29/2010/04/15/p/dre/pt/htmlDecree
Resolution of the Council of Ministers 63/2003. Approves the guidelines of the Portuguese energy policy and revokes the Resolution of the Council of Ministers 154/2001. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, Diário da República n.° 98/2003, Série I-B de 2003-04-28, pp. 2722–2731. https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolconsmin/63/2003/04/28/p/dre/pt/html
Resolution of the Council of Ministers 88/2017. Approves the national action framework for the development of an alternative fuel market in the transportation sector. Presidência do Conselho de Ministros, Diário da República n.° 121/2017, Série I de 2017-06-26, pp. 3190–3228. https://data.dre.pt/eli/resolconsmin/88/2017/06/26/p/dre/pt/html
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Guerreiro, L., Jörgens, H., Alves, V. (2021). Energy Governance in Portugal. In: Knodt, M., Kemmerzell, J. (eds) Handbook of Energy Governance in Europe. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73526-9_23-1
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