Abstract
In this chapter, we review the current understanding of planet formation processes by focusing on low-mass planets, which represent the best candidates for habitability. We present the different theoretical models that have been developed during the recent years and their predictions in terms of planetary composition, in particular their water content. We finally link the planetary composition with potential habitability.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Alibert Y (2014) On the radius of habitable planets. A&A 561:A41. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201322293, 1311.3039
Alibert Y, Benz W (2017) Formation and composition of planets around very low mass stars. A&A 598:L5. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201629671, 1610.03460
Alibert Y, Mordasini C, Benz W, Winisdoerffer C (2005) Models of giant planet formation with migration and disk evolution. A&A 434:343–353. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20042032, astro-ph/0412444
Alibert Y, Carron F, Fortier A et al (2013) Theoretical models of planetary system formation: mass vs. semi-major axis. A&A 558:A109. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201321690, 1307.4864
Andrews SM (2015) Observations of solids in protoplanetary disks. PASP 127:961. https://doi.org/10.1086/683178, 1507.04758
Baruteau C, Bai X, Mordasini C, Mollière P (2016) Formation, orbital and internal evolutions of young planetary systems. Space Sci Rev 205:77–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-016-0258-z, 1604.07558
Bieler A, Altwegg K, Balsiger H et al (2015) Abundant molecular oxygen in the coma of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Nature 526:678–681. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15707
Birnstiel T, Dullemond CP, Brauer F (2009) Dust retention in protoplanetary disks. A&A 503:L5–L8. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/200912452, 0907.0985
Birnstiel T, Ormel CW, Dullemond CP (2011) Dust size distributions in coagulation/fragmentation equilibrium: numerical solutions and analytical fits. A&A 525:A11. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201015228, 1009.3011
Birnstiel T, Fang M, Johansen A (2016) Dust evolution and the formation of planetesimals. Space Sci Rev 205:41–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-016-0256-1, 1604.02952
Bond JC, O’Brien DP, Lauretta DS (2010) The compositional diversity of extrasolar terrestrial planets. I. In situ simulations. ApJ 715:1050–1070. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/715/2/1050, 1004.0971
Carter-Bond JC, O’Brien DP, Raymond SN (2012) The compositional diversity of extrasolar terrestrial planets. II. Migration simulations. ApJ 760:44. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/44, 1209.5125
Cassen P (1994) Utilitarian models of the solar nebula. Icarus 112:405–429. https://doi.org/10.1006/icar.1994.1195
Chambers JE (2016) Pebble accretion and the diversity of planetary systems. ApJ 825:63. https://doi.org/10.3847/0004-637X/825/1/63, 1604.06362
Ciesla FJ, Mulders GD, Pascucci I, Apai D (2015) Volatile delivery to planets from water-rich planetesimals around low mass stars. ApJ 804:9. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/804/1/9, 1502.07412
Dullemond CP, Dominik C (2005) Dust coagulation in protoplanetary disks: a rapid depletion of small grains. A&A 434:971–986. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20042080, astro-ph/0412117
Dürmann C, Kley W (2015) Migration of massive planets in accreting disks. A&A 574:A52. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201424837, 1411.3190
Fortier A, Alibert Y, Carron F, Benz W, Dittkrist KM (2013) Planet formation models: the interplay with the planetesimal disk. A&A 549:A44. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201220241, 1210.4009
Gillon M, Triaud AHMJ, Demory BO et al (2017) Seven temperate terrestrial planets around the nearby ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1. Nature 542:456–460. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21360, 1703.01424
Goldreich P, Tremaine S (1979) The excitation of density waves at the Lindblad and corotation resonances by an external potential. ApJ 233:857–871. https://doi.org/10.1086/157448
Guilera OM, de ElÃa GC, Brunini A, SantamarÃa PJ (2014) Planetesimal fragmentation and giant planet formation. A&A 565:A96. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201322061, 1401.7738
Hoffmann V, Grimm SL, Moore B, Stadel J (2017) Stochasticity and predictability in terrestrial planet formation. MNRAS 465:2170–2188. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stw2856
Hori Y, Ikoma M (2011) Gas giant formation with small cores triggered by envelope pollution by icy planetesimals. MNRAS 416:1419–1429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19140.x, 1106.2626
Jackson B, Miller N, Barnes R et al (2010) The roles of tidal evolution and evaporative mass loss in the origin of CoRoT-7 b. MNRAS 407:910–922, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17012.x, 1005.2186
Jedicke R, Larsen J, Spahr T (2002) Observational selection effects in asteroid surveys, In: Bottke WF Jr, Cellino A, Paolicchi P, Binzel RP (eds) Asteroids III, pp 71–87. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002aste.book...71J
Johansen A, Youdin A (2007) Protoplanetary disk turbulence driven by the streaming instability: nonlinear saturation and particle concentration. ApJ 662:627–641. https://doi.org/10.1086/516730, astro-ph/0702626
Johansen A, Youdin AN, Lithwick Y (2012) Adding particle collisions to the formation of asteroids and Kuiper belt objects via streaming instabilities. A&A 537:A125. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201117701, 1111.0221
Johansen A, Mac Low MM, Lacerda P, Bizzarro M (2015) Growth of asteroids, planetary embryos, and Kuiper belt objects by chondrule accretion. Sci Adv 1:1500109. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500109, 1503.07347
Kataoka A, Tanaka H, Okuzumi S, Wada K (2013) Fluffy dust forms icy planetesimals by static compression. A&A 557:L4. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201322151, 1307.7984
Kitzmann D, Alibert Y, Godolt M et al (2015) The unstable CO2 feedback cycle on ocean planets. MNRAS 452:3752–3758. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stv1487, 1507.01727
Kley W (2017) Planet formation and disk-planet interactions. ArXiv e-prints 1707.07148
Kley W, Nelson RP (2012) Planet-disk interaction and orbital evolution. ARA&A 50:211–249. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125523, 1203.1184
Lambrechts M, Johansen A (2012) Rapid growth of gas-giant cores by pebble accretion. A&A 544:A32. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201219127, 1205.3030
Leinhardt ZM, Stewart ST (2012) Collisions between Gravity-dominated bodies. I. Outcome regimes and scaling laws. ApJ 745:79. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/745/1/79, 1106.6084
Levi A, Sasselov D, Podolak M (2017) The abundance of atmospheric CO2 in ocean exoplanets: a novel CO2 deposition mechanism. ApJ 838:24. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/aa5cfe, 1609.08185
Levison HF, Kretke KA, Duncan MJ (2015) Growing the gas-giant planets by the gradual accumulation of pebbles. Nature 524:322–324. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14675, 1510.02094
Lissauer JJ, Fabrycky DC, Ford EB et al (2011) A closely packed system of low-mass, low-density planets transiting Kepler-11. Nature 470:53–58. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09760, 1102.0291
Lodders K, Palme H, Gail HP (2009) Abundances of the elements in the solar system. Landolt Börnstein, p 44. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-88055-4_34, 0901.1149
Lovis C (2011) Up to seven planets orbiting HD 10180: probing the architecture of low-mass planetary systems. In: European physical journal Web of conferences, vol 11, p 05010. https://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/20101105010
Luger R, Barnes R, Lopez E et al (2015) Habitable evaporated cores: transforming mini-Neptunes into super-Earths in the habitable zones of M dwarfs. Astrobiology 15:57–88. https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2014.1215, 1501.06572
Madhusudhan N, Agúndez M, Moses JI, Hu Y (2016) Exoplanetary atmospheres–chemistry, formation conditions, and habitability. Space Sci Rev 205:285–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-016-0254-3, 1604.06092
Mamajek EE (2009) Initial conditions of planet formation: lifetimes of primordial disks. In: Usuda T, Tamura M, Ishii M (eds) American institute of physics conference series, vol 1158, pp 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3215910, 0906.5011
Masset FS (2011) On type-I migration near opacity transitions. A generalized Lindblad torque formula for planetary population synthesis. Celest Mech Dyn Astron 111:131–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10569-011-9364-0, 1206.2867
Masset FS, Casoli J (2010) Saturated torque formula for planetary migration in viscous disks with thermal diffusion: recipe for protoplanet population synthesis. ApJ 723:1393–1417. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/723/2/1393, 1009.1913
Masset F, Snellgrove M (2001) Reversing type II migration: resonance trapping of a lighter giant protoplanet. MNRAS 320:L55–L59. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04159.x, astro-ph/0003421
Mayer L, Peters T, Pineda JE, Wadsley J, Rogers P (2016) Direct detection of precursors of gas giants formed by gravitational instability with the atacama large millimeter/submillimeter array. ApJ 823:L36. https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8205/823/2/L36, 1602.04827
Mayor M, Queloz D (1995) A Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star. Nature 378:355–359. https://doi.org/10.1038/378355a0
Morbidelli A, Bottke WF, Nesvorný D, Levison HF (2009) Asteroids were born big. Icarus 204:558–573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2009.07.011, 0907.2512
Morbidelli A, Lambrechts M, Jacobson S, Bitsch B (2015) The great dichotomy of the solar System: small terrestrial embryos and massive giant planet cores. Icarus 258:418–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2015.06.003, 1506.01666
Motalebi F, Udry S, Gillon M et al (2015) The HARPS-N rocky planet search. I. HD 219134 b: a transiting rocky planet in a multi-planet system at 6.5 pc from the sun. A&A 584:A72. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201526822, 1507.08532
Mulders GD, Ciesla FJ, Min M, Pascucci I (2015) The snow line in viscous disks around low-mass stars: implications for water delivery to terrestrial planets in the habitable zone. ApJ 807:9. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/807/1/9, 1505.03516
Okuzumi S, Tanaka H, Kobayashi H, Wada K (2012) Rapid coagulation of porous dust aggregates outside the snow line: a pathway to successful icy planetesimal formation. ApJ 752:106. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/752/2/106, 1204.5035
Ormel CW, Kobayashi H (2012) Understanding how planets become massive. I. Description and validation of a new toy model. ApJ 747:115. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/747/2/115, 1112.0274
Paardekooper SJ, Papaloizou JCB (2008) On disk protoplanet interactions in a non-barotropic disk with thermal diffusion. A&A 485:877–895. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20078702, 0804.4547
Paardekooper SJ, Papaloizou JCB (2009) On corotation torques, horseshoe drag and the possibility of sustained stalled or outward protoplanetary migration. MNRAS 394:2283–2296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14511.x, 0901.2265
Paardekooper SJ, Baruteau C, Crida A, Kley W (2010) A torque formula for non-isothermal type I planetary migration – I. Unsaturated horseshoe drag. MNRAS 401:1950–1964. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15782.x, 0909.4552
Paardekooper SJ, Baruteau C, Kley W (2011) A torque formula for non-isothermal type I planetary migration – II. Effects of diffusion. MNRAS 410:293–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17442.x, 1007.4964
Raymond SN, Quinn T, Lunine JI (2004) Making other earths: dynamical simulations of terrestrial planet formation and water delivery. Icarus 168:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2003.11.019, astro-ph/0308159
Raymond SN, Barnes R, Mandell AM (2008) Observable consequences of planet formation models in systems with close-in terrestrial planets. MNRAS 384:663–674. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12712.x, 0711.2015
Rice WKM, Armitage PJ (2003) On the formation timescale and core masses of gas giant planets. ApJ 598:L55–L58. https://doi.org/10.1086/380390, astro-ph/0310191
Sándor Z, Kley W, Klagyivik P (2007) Stability and formation of the resonant system HD 73526. A&A 472:981–992. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20077345, 0706.2128
Simon JB, Armitage PJ, Li R, Youdin AN (2016) The mass and size distribution of planetesimals formed by the streaming instability. I. The role of self-gravity. ApJ 822:55. https://doi.org/10.3847/0004-637X/822/1/55, 1512.00009
Suetsugu R, Ohtsuki K (2017) Distribution of captured planetesimals in circumplanetary gas disks and implications for accretion of regular satellites. ApJ 839:66. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/aa692e, 1703.07917
Tanaka H, Ida S (1996) Distribution of planetesimals around a protoplanet in the nebula gas. Icarus 120:371–386. https://doi.org/10.1006/icar.1996.0057
Tanaka H, Ida S (1997) Distribution of planetesimals around a protoplanet in the nebula gas. Icarus 125:302–316. https://doi.org/10.1006/icar.1996.9998
Tanaka H, Takeuchi T, Ward WR (2002) Three-dimensional interaction between a planet and an isothermal gaseous disk. I. Corotation and Lindblad torques and planet migration. ApJ 565:1257–1274. https://doi.org/10.1086/324713
Thiabaud A, Marboeuf U, Alibert Y, Leya I, Mezger K (2015) Gas composition of the main volatile elements in protoplanetary discs and its implication for planet formation. A&A 574:A138. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201424868
Venturini J, Alibert Y, Benz W, Ikoma M (2015) Critical core mass for enriched envelopes: the role of H2O condensation. A&A 576:A114. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201424008, 1502.01160
Venturini J, Alibert Y, Benz W (2016) Planet formation with envelope enrichment: new insights on planetary diversity. A&A 596:A90. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201628828, 1609.00960
Ward WR (1986) Density waves in the solar nebula – differential Lindblad torque. Icarus 67:164–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/0019-1035(86)90182-X
Ward WR (1997) Protoplanet migration by nebula tides. Icarus 126:261–281. https://doi.org/10.1006/icar.1996.5647
Weidenschilling SJ (1977) Aerodynamics of solid bodies in the solar nebula. MNRAS 180:57–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/180.1.57
Williams JP, Cieza LA (2011) Protoplanetary disks and their evolution. ARA&A 49:67–117. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102548, 1103.0556
Windmark F, Birnstiel T, Ormel CW, Dullemond CP (2012) Breaking through: the effects of a velocity distribution on barriers to dust growth. A&A 544:L16. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201220004, 1208.0304
Winn JN, Fabrycky DC (2015) The occurrence and architecture of exoplanetary systems. ARA&A 53:409–447. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-astro-082214-122246, 1410.4199
Youdin AN, Goodman J (2005) Streaming instabilities in protoplanetary disks. ApJ 620:459–469. https://doi.org/10.1086/426895, astro-ph/0409263
Zsom A, Ormel CW, Güttler C, Blum J, Dullemond CP (2010) The outcome of protoplanetary dust growth: pebbles, boulders, or planetesimals? II. Introducing the bouncing barrier. A&A 513:A57. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/200912976, 1001.0488
Acknowledgements
This work has been carried out within the framework of the National Centre for Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the SNSF.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this entry
Cite this entry
Alibert, Y., Ataiee, S., Venturini, J. (2018). Planet Formation, Migration, and Habitability. In: Deeg, H., Belmonte, J. (eds) Handbook of Exoplanets . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_64
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_64
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-55332-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-55333-7
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Chemistry, Materials and Physics