Abstract
At the increasing pace with which additive manufacturing technologies are advancing, it is possible nowadays to fabricate a variety of three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds with controlled structural and architectural properties. Examples span from metal cellular solids, which find application as prosthetic devices, to bioprinted constructs holding the promise to regenerate tissues and organs. These 3D porous constructs can display a variety of physicochemical and mechanical properties depending on the used material and on the design of the pore network to be created. To determine how these properties change with changing the scaffold’s design criteria, a plethora of characterization methods are applied in the biofabrication field. In this chapter, we review the most common techniques used to characterize such fabricated scaffolds by additive manufacturing technologies.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abramowitch SD, Woo SL (2004) An improved method to analyze the stress relaxation of ligaments following a finite ramp time based on the quasi-linear viscoelastic theory. J Biomech Eng 126(1):92–97. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1645528
Barsoukov E (2005) Impedance spectroscopy: theory, experiment, and applications (edited by J Ross Macdonald), 2nd. edn isbn:978-0-471-64749-2.
Bay BK, Smith TS, Fyhrie DP, Saad M (1999) Digital volume correlation: three-dimensional strain mapping using X-ray tomography. Exp Mech 39(3):217–226
Binnig G, Quate CF, Gerber C (1986) Atomic-Force Microscope. Phys Rev Lett 56(9):930–933
Boffito M, Bernardi E, Sartori S, Ciardelli G, Sassi MP (2015) A mechanical characterization of polymer scaffolds and films at the macroscale and nanoscale. J Biomed Mater Res A 103:162–169
Carrabba M, De Maria C, Oikawa A, Reni C, Rodriguez-Arabaolaza I, Spencer H, Slater S, Avolio E, Dang Z, Spinetti G, Madeddu P, Vozzi G (2016) Design, fabrication and perivascular implantation of bioactive scaffolds engineered with human adventitial progenitor cells for stimulation of arteriogenesis in peripheral ischemia. Biofabrication 8(1):015020
Castilho M, Dias M, Vorndran E, Gbureck U, Fernandes P, Pires I, Gouveia B, Armés H, Pires E, Rodrigues J (2014) Application of a 3D printed customized implant for canine cruciate ligament treatment by tibial tuberosity advancement. Biofabrication 6(2):025005
Cheah CM, Chua CK, Leong KF, Chua SW (2003) Development of a tissue engineering scaffold structure library for rapid prototyping. Part 1: investigation and classification. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 21(4):291–301
Clarke AR (2002) Microscopy techniques for materials science. CRC Press (electronic resource)
de Gennes PG (1985) Wetting: statics and dynamics. Rev Mod Phys 57:827–863
De Maria C, Giusti S, Mazzei D, Crawford A, Ahluwalia A (2011) Squeeze pressure bioreactor: a hydrodynamic bioreactor for noncontact stimulation of cartilage constructs. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 17(7):757–764
De Maria C, De Acutis A, Vozzi G (2015) Indirect rapid prototyping for tissue engineering. In: Essential of 3D biofabrication and translation. Elsevier. isbn:978-0-12-800972-7
Della Volpe C, Brugnara M (2006) About the possibility of experimentally measuring an equilibrium contact angle and its theoretical and practical consequences. Contact Angle, Wettability and Adhesion 4:79–100
Denk W, Strickler JH, Webb WW (1990) Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy. Science 248(4951):73–76
Dias MR, Fernandes PR, Guedes JM, Hollister SJ (2012) Permeability analysis of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. J Biomech 45:938–944
Doube M, Kłosowski MM, Arganda-Carreras I, Cordeliéres F, Dougherty RP, Jackson J, Schmid B, Hutchinson JR, Shefelbine SJ (2010) BoneJ: free and extensible bone image analysis in ImageJ. Bone 47:1076–1079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2010.08.023
EC Regulation No 1394/2007 on advanced therapy medicinal products and amending Directive 2001/83/EC and Regulation (EC) No 726/2004
Egerton RF (2005) Physical principles of electron microscopy: an introduction to TEM, SEM, and AEM. Springer, New York
Ehret R, Baumann W, Brischwein M, Schwinde A, Stegbauer K, Wolf B (1997) Monitoring of cellular behaviour by impedance measurements on interdigitated electrode structures. Biosens Bioelectron 12(1):29–41
Eshraghi S, Das S (2010) Mechanical and microstructural properties of polycaprolactone scaffolds with one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional orthogonally oriented porous architectures produced by selective laser sintering. Acta Biomater 6(7):2467–2476
Fujie T, Desii A, Ventrelli L, Mazzolai B, Mattoli V (2012) Inkjet printing of protein microarrays on freestanding polymeric nanofilms for spatio-selective cell culture environment. Biomed Microdevices 14(6):1069–1076
Fung YC, Perrone N, Anliker M (1972) Stress strain history relations of soft tissues in simple elongation. In: Biomechanics: its foundations and objectives. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, pp 181–207
Ge Z, Yang F, Goh JCH, Ramakrishna S, Lee EH (2006) Biomaterials and scaffolds for ligament tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 77:639–652
Giaever I, Keese CR (1984) Monitoring fibroblast behavior in tissue culture with an applied electric field. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81(12):3761–3764
Giaever I, Keese CR (1991) Micromotion of mammalian cells measured electrically. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88(17):7896–7900
Giessibl FJ, Trafas BM (1994) Piezoresistive cantilevers utilized for scanning tunneling and scanning force microscope in ultrahigh vacuum. Rev Sci Instrum 65(6):1923
Gilbert PM, Havenstrite KL, Magnusson KE, Sacco A, Leonardi NA, Kraft P, Nguyen NK, Thrun S, Lutolf MP, Blau HM (2010) Substrate elasticity regulates skeletal muscle stem cell self-renewal in culture. Science 329(5995):1078–1081
Goldstein J (2003) Scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis. Kluwer Adacemic/Plenum Pulbishers, New York
Groll J, Boland T, Blunk T, Burdick JA, Cho DW, Dalton PD, Derby B, Forgacs G, Li Q, Mironov VA, Moroni L, Nakamura M, Shu W, Takeuchi S, Vozzi G, Woodfield TB, Xu T, Yoo JJ, Malda J (2016) Biofabrication: reappraising the definition of an evolving field. Biofabrication 8(1):013001
Guillemot F, Mironov V, Nakamura M (2010) Bioprinting is coming of age: report from the international conference on bioprinting and biofabrication in Bordeaux (3B'09). Biofabrication 2:010201
Ho ST, Hutmacher DW (2006) A comparison of micro CT with other techniques used in the characterization of scaffolds. Biomaterials 27(8):1362–1376
Hoque ME, Hutmacher DW, Feng W, Li S, Huang MH, Vert M, Wong YS (2005) Fabrication using a rapid prototyping system and in vitro characterization of PEG-PCL-PLA scaffolds for tissue engineering. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 16(12):1595–1610
Huang J, Pan X, Li S, Peng X, Xiong C, Fang J (2011) A digital volume correlation technique for 3-D deformation measurements of soft gels. Int J Appl Mech 3(2):335–354
Hutmacher D, Woodfield T, Dalton P, Lewis J (2008) Scaffold design and fabrication in tissue engineering. In: Tissue engineering, pp 403–454. isbn:978-0-12-370869-4
Ibáñez L, Schroeder W, Ng L, Cates J, Consortium TIS, Hamming R (2003) The ITK software guide. Kitware, Inc., New York
Kemppainen J (2008) Mechanically stable solid free form fabricated scaffolds with permeability optimized for cartilage tissue engineering. Dissertation, University of Michigan, USA
Kemppainen J, Hollister S (2010) Differential effects of designed scaffold permeability on chondrogenesis by chondroyctes and bone marrow stromal cells. Biomaterials 31:279–287
Kubitscheck U (2013) Fluorescence microscopy: from principles to biological applications. Wiley-Blackwell, Weinheim. isbn:978-3-527
Li J, Mak A (2005) Hydraulic permeability of polyglycolic acid scaffolds as a function of biomaterial degradation. J Biomater Appl 19:253–266
Loh QL, Choong C (2013) Three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering applications: role of porosity and pore size. Tissue Eng Part B Rev 19(6):485–502
Malda J, Woodfield TB, van der Vloodt F, Wilson C, Martens DE, Tramper J, van Blitterswijk CA, Riesle J (2005) The effect of PEGT/PBT scaffold architecture on the composition of tissue engineered cartilage. Biomaterials 26(1):63–72
Malda J, Visser J, Melchels FP, Jüngst T, Hennink WE, Dhert WJ, Groll J, Hutmacher DW (2013) 25th anniversary article: engineering hydrogels for biofabrication. Adv Mater 25(36):5011–5028
Masaeli E, Morshed M, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Sadri S, Hilderink J, van Apeldoorn A, van Blitterswijk CA, Moroni L (2013) Fabrication, characterization and cellular compatibility of poly(hydroxy alkanoate) composite nanofibrous scaffolds for nerve tissue engineering. PLoS One 8(2):e57157
Mattioli-Belmonte M, De Maria C, Vitale-Brovarone C, Baino F, Dicarlo M, Vozzi G (2015) Pressure-activated microsyringe (PAM) fabrication of bioactive glass-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) composite scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration. J Tissue Eng Regen Med. https://doi.org/10.1002/term.2095
Menard KP (1999) DMA: introduction to the technique, its applications and theory. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Moroni L, de Wijn JR, van Blitterswijk CA (2006) 3D fiber-deposited scaffolds for tissue engineering: influence of pores geometry and architecture on dynamic mechanical properties. Biomaterials 27:974–985
Nadeem D, Kiamehr M, Yang X, Su B (2013) Fabrication and in vitro evaluation of a sponge-like bioactive-glass/gelatin composite scaffold for bone tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl 33(5):2669–2678
Nitzsche H, Metz H, Lochmann A, Bernstein A, Hause G, Groth T, Mäder K (2009) Characterization of scaffolds for tissue engineering by benchtop-magnetic resonance imaging. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 15(3):513–521. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEC.2008.0488
Oest ME, Dupont KM, Kong HJ, Mooney DJ, Guldberg RE (2007) Quantitative assessment of scaffold and growth factor-mediated repair of critically sized bone defects. J Orthop Res 25(7):941–950
Orsi G, De Maria C, Montemurro F, Chauhan VM, Aylott JW, Vozzi G (2015) Combining inkjet printing and sol-gel chemistry for making pH-sensitive surfaces. Curr Top Med Chem 15:271–278
Panetta J, Zhou Q, Malomo L, Pietroni N, Cignoni P, Zorin D (2015) Elastic textures for additive fabrication. ACM Trans on Graphics – Siggraph 34(4):12
Park CH, Rios HF, Jin Q, Sugai JV, Padial-Molina M, Taut AD, Flanagan CL, Hollister SJ, Giannobile WV (2012) Tissue engineering bone-ligament complexes using fiber-guiding scaffolds. Biomaterials 33(1):137–145
Rainer A, Giannitelli SM, Accoto D, De Porcellinis S, Guglielmelli E, Trombetta M (2012) Load-adaptive scaffold architecturing: a bioinspired approach to the design of porous additively manufactured scaffolds with optimized mechanical properties. Ann Biomed Eng 40(4):966–975
Ratner BD, Hoffman AS, Schoen FJ, Lemons JE (2013) Biomaterials science, 3rd edn. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego/London. ISBN:978-0-12-374626-9
Shirazi RN, Ronan W, Rochev Y, McHugh P (2016) Modelling the degradation and elastic properties of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) films and regular open-cell tissue engineering scaffolds. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 54:48–59
Sudarmadji N, Tan JY, Leong KF, Chua CK, Loh YT (2011) Investigation of the mechanical properties and porosity relationships in selective laser-sintered polyhedral for functionally graded scaffolds. Acta Biomater 7(2):530–537
Sutton MA, Orteu JJ, Schreier HW (2009) Image correlation for shape, motion and deformation measurements. Springer, New York. isbn:978-0-387-78746-6
Tirella A, Ahluwalia A (2012) The impact of fabrication parameters and substrate stiffness in direct writing of living constructs. Biotechnol Prog 28(5):1315–1320
Tirella A, Vozzi F, Vozzi G, Ahluwalia A (2011) PAM2 (piston assisted microsyringe): a new rapid prototyping technique for biofabrication of cell incorporated scaffolds. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 17(2):229–237
Tomlins P (2015) Characterization and design of tissue scaffold. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK/Waltham/Kidlington. ISBN:9781782420958
Urciuolo A, Quarta M, Morbidoni V, Gattazzo F, Molon S, Grumati P, Montemurro F, Tedesco FS, Blaauw B, Cossu G, Vozzi G, Rando TA, Bonaldo P (2013) Collagen VI regulates satellite cell self-renewal and muscle regeneration. Nat Commun 4:1964
von Burkersroda F, Schedl L, Göpferich A (2002) Why degradable polymers undergo surface erosion or bulk erosion. Biomaterials 23(21):4221–4231
Whulanza Y, Ucciferri N, Domenici C, Vozzi G, Ahluwalia A (2011) Sensing scaffolds to monitor cellular activity using impedance measurements. Biosens Bioelectron 26(7):3303–3308
Whulanza Y, Battini E, Vannozzi L, Vomero M, Ahluwalia A, Vozzi G (2013) Electrical and mechanical characterisation of single wall carbon nanotubes based composites for tissue engineering applications. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 13(1):188–197
Zein I, Hutmacher DW, Tan KC, Teoh SH (2002) Fused deposition modeling of novel scaffold architectures for tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials 23(4):1169–1185
Zhang Z, Jones D, Yue S, Lee PD, Jones JR, Sutcliffe CJ, Jones E (2013) Hierarchical tailoring of strut architecture to control permeability of additive manufactured titanium implants. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl 33(7):4055–4062
Acknowledgements
This project/research has been made possible with the support of the Dutch Province of Limburg.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this entry
Cite this entry
Criscenti, G., De Maria, C., Vozzi, G., Moroni, L. (2018). Characterization of Additive Manufactured Scaffolds. In: Ovsianikov, A., Yoo, J., Mironov, V. (eds) 3D Printing and Biofabrication. Reference Series in Biomedical Engineering(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45444-3_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45444-3_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-45443-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-45444-3
eBook Packages: EngineeringReference Module Computer Science and Engineering