Abstract
One of the problems largely commented in the sol-gel science is how to make large bodies, because gels tend to crack during drying. The drying stresses are attributed to capillary phenomena and differential strain which result from a pressure gradient in the pore liquid. By the supercritical drying (SCD), the capillary stresses are eliminated and monolithic aerogel can be obtained. This chapter focuses on silica aerogel, the most studied aerogel. It presents an overview of the supercritical drying techniques, but also some of the remarkable aerogel properties (optical, mechanical, thermal and acoustical, etc.) with respect to its peculiar microstructure.
The chapter briefly presents other kinds of aerogels (oxides and chalcogenide aerogels, composite aerogels, organic aerogels, etc.) and a panel of potential applications.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aegerter AM, Leventis N, Koebel MM. Aerogels handbook. New York: Springer; 2011.
Anez L, Calas-Etienne S, Primera J, Woignier T. Gas and liquid permeability in nano composites gels: comparison of Knudsen and Klinkenberg correction factors. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2014;200:79–85.
Aravind PR, Sithara L, Mukundan P, Krishna PP, Warrier KGK. Silica alcogels for possible nuclear wastes confinement- a simulated study. J Mater Sci Lett. 2007;61:2398–401.
Aravind PR, Shajesh P, Mukundan P, Krishna PP, Warrier KGK. Non- supercritically dried silica- silica composites aerogel and its possible application for confining nuclear wastes. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol. 2008;46:146–51.
Bag S, Trikalitis PN, Chupas PJ, et al. Porous semiconducting gels and aerogels from xhalcogenide clusters. Science. 2007;317:490–3.
Baker LCW, Anderson TF. Some phase relationships in the three-component liquid system. J Am Chem Soc. 1957;79(2):2071–4.
Bali S, Huggins FE, Huffman GP, Ernst RD, Pugmire RJ, Eyring EM. Iron aerogels and xerogels catalysts for fischer-Tropsch synthesis of diesel fuel. Energy Fuel. 2009;23:14–8.
Barral K. Low density organic aerogels by double-catalysed synthesis. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;225:46–50.
Basso B, De Martin L, Ebert C, Gardoss C, Tomat T, Casarci M, Li RO. A novel support for enzyme adsorption: properties and applications of aerogels in low water media. Tetrahedron Lett. 2000;41:8627–30.
Bheekhun N., Abu Talib A.R. Hassan M.R.. Aerogels in aerospace: an overview. Adv Mater Sci Eng. 2013; 2013: 406065, 18 pages. 10.1155/2013/406065.
Biesmans G, Randall D, Français E, Perrut M. Polyurethane-based organic aerogels’thermal performance. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998a;225:36–40.
Biesmans G, Mertens A, Duffours L, Woignier T, Phalippou J. Polyurethane based organic aerogels and their transformation into carbon aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998b;225:64–8.
Boonstra AH, Mulder CAM. effect of hydrolytic polycondensation of tetraethoxysilane on specific surface area of SiO2 gels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1988;105:201–6.
Brinker, Scherer, Sol-gel science New York :Academic (1990).
Brock SL, Yu H. Chalcogenide aerogels, Chap. 17. In: Aegerter MA, Leventis N, Koebel MM, editors. Aerogels handbook. New York: Springer Science; 2011. p. 367–84.
Cabidoche YM, Achard R, Cattan P, Clermont-Dauphin C, Massat F, Sansoulet J. Long-term pollution by chlordecone of tropical volcanic soils in the French West Indies: a simple leaching model accounts for current residue. J Environ Pollut. 2009;157:1697–705.
Chang X, Chen D, Jiao X. Chitosan-based aerogels with high adsorption performance. J Phys Chem B. 2008;112:7721–5.
Chen L, Zhu J, Liu YM, Cao Y, Li HX, He H, Dai W, Fan K. Photocatalytic activity of epoxide sol–gel derived titania transformed into nanocrystalline aerogel powders by supercritical drying. J Mol Catal A Chem. 2006;255:260–8.
Chevallier T, Woignier T, Toucet J, Blanchart E. Carbon sequestration in the fractal porosity of Andosols. Geoderma. 2010;159:182–8.
Degn EE, Engell J. Freeze drying of silica gels prepared from silicium methoxide. Rev Phys Appl. 1989;C4–24:23–8.
Einarsrud MA. Light gels by conventional drying. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;225:1–7.
El Rassy H, Maury S, Buisson P, Pierre AC. Hydrophobic silica aerogel-lipase biocatalysts – Possible interactions between the enzyme and the gel. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2004;350:23–30.
Esquivias L, Zarzycki J. Sonogels : an alternative method in sol-gel processing. In: Mackenzie JD, Ulrich DR, editors. Ultrastructure processing of advanced ceramics. New York: Wiley; 1988. p. 255–70.
Esquivias L, Pinero M, Morales-Florez V, Dela Rosa Fox N. Aerogels synthesis by sonocatalysis :sonogels, Chap. 20. In: Aegerter MA, Leventis N, Koebel MM, editors. Aerogels handbook. Springer Science; 2011. p. 419–48.
Fehr C, Diuedonné P, Primera J, Woignier T, Sauvajol JL, Anglaret E. Solid state polymorphism of liquid crystals in confined geometries. Eur Phys J E. 2003;12:13–66.
Forest L, Gibiat V, Woignier T. Biot’s Theory of acoustic propagation in porous media applied to aerogels and alcogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;225:477–48.
Forest L, Gibiat V, Hooley A. Impedance matching and acoustic absorption in granular layers of silica aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;285:230–5.
Francis AW. Ternary systems of liquid carbon dioxide. J Phys Chem. 1954;58:1099–114.
Gash AE, Tillotson TM, Satcher Jr JH, Hrubesh LW, Simpson RL. New sol-gel synthetic route to transition and main-group metal oxide aerogels using inorganic salt precursors. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;285:22–8.
Gross J, Fricke J. Ultrasonic velocity measurement in silica, carbon and inorganic aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1992;145:217–22.
Gross J, Coronado PR, Hrubesh LW. Elastic properties of silica aerogels from a new rapid supercritical extraction process. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;225:282–6.
Hench LL. Use of drying control chemical addition (DCCAs) in controlling sol-gel processing. In: Hench LL, Ulrich DR, editors. Science of ceramic chemical processing. New York: Wiley; 1986. p. 52–64.
Hrubesh LW. Aerogel applications. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;225:335–42.
Jones SM. Aerogels: space explorations applications. J. Sol-Gel Sci Tech. 2006;40:351–7.
Kim KK, Jang KY. Hollow silica spheres of controlled size and porosity by sol-gel processing. J Am Ceram Soc. 1991;74:1987–92.
Kistler SS. Coherent expanded aerogels. J Phys Chem. 1932;34:52–64.
Kocon L, Despetis F, Phalippou J. Ultralow density silica aerogels by alcohol supercritical drying. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;225:96–100.
Kucheyev SO, van Buuren T, Baumann TF, Satcher JH, Willey TM, Meulenberg RW, Felter TE, Poco JF, Gammon SA, Terminello LJ. Electronic structure of titania aerogels from soft x-ray absorption spectroscopy. Phys Rev B. 2004;69(24):245102. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.69.245102.
Labat L., Durin C., Remaury S., Mandeville J.C., Rejsek-Riba V., Duzellier S., Duffours L., Colombel P., Woignier T.2013), CNES experiments on MEDET Astrophysics and space science proceedings 32 Masahito Tagawa, Jacob Kleinman,Yugo Kimoto Springer Heidelberg/New York/Toronto/London, 978-3 642-30228-2, 217–234
Land VD, Harris TM, Teeters DC. Processing of low density silica gels by critical point drying or ambient pressure drying. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;283:11–7.
Land VD, Harris TM, Henshaw JM. Effect of gel modulus on the porosity of low-density silica. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2003;316:238–45.
Lee J. K., Gould G.L. Aerogel powder therapeutic agents. US Patent 6994842. 2006.
Lee JK, Gould GL. Polyurea based aerogel for a high performance thermal insulation material. J. Sol-Gel Sci. and Tech. 2009;49:209–20.
Leventis N, Elder IA, Rolison DR, Anderson ML, Merzbacher CI. Durable modification of silica aerogel monoliths with fluorescent 2,7-diazapyrenium moieties. Sensing oxygen near the speed of open-air diffusion. Chem Mater. 1999;11:2837–45.
Leventis N, Sotitiou-Leventis C, Zhang G, Rawashdeh A-MM. Nanoengineering strong silica aerogels. Nano Lett. 2000;2(9):957–60.
Loy DA, Russick EM, Yamanaka SA, Baugher BM, Shea KJ. Direct formation of aerogels by sol-gel polymerization of alkoxysilanes in supercritical carbon dioxide. Chem Mater. 1997;9:2264–8.
Marlière C, Woignier T, Dieudonné P, Primera J, Lamy M, Phalippou J. Two fractal structure in aerogel. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;285:175–81.
Martin J, Hostika B, Lattimer C, Norris PM. Mechanical and acoustical properties as a function of PEG concentration in macroporous silica gels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;285:222–9.
Mezza P, Phalippou J, Sempere R. Sol-gel derived porous silica films. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1999;243:75.
Mizuno T, Nagata H, Manabe S. Attempts to avoid cracks during drying. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1988;100:236–40.
Mo C.M., Li Y.H., Liu Y.S.,Zhang Y., Zhang L.D, Enhancement effect of photoluminescence in assemblies of nano-ZnO particles/silica aerogels, J Appl Phys 1998; 83: 4389–4391
Mohanan JL, Arachchige IU, Brock SL. Porous semiconductor chalcogenide aerogels. Science. 2005;307:397–400.
Mulder CAM, Van Lierop JG. Preparation, densification and characterization of autoclave dried SiO2 gels. In: Fricke J, editor. Aerogels, springer proceedings in physics. 6 Heidelberg: Springer; 1986. p. 68–75.
Pajonk GM. Drying methods preserving the textural properties of gels. Rev Phys Appl. 1989;C4–24:13–22.
Pajonk GM, El Tanany A. Isomerization and hydrogenation of butane-1 on a zirconia aerogel catalyst. React Kinet Catal Lett. 1992;47:167–75.
Panagiotopoulos AZ, Reid RC. High pressure phase in ternary fluid mixtures with a supercritical component. Am Chem Soc Div Fuel Chemi. 1985;30(3):46–56.
Pauthe M, Quinson JF, Hdach H, Woignier T, Phalippou J, Scherer GW. Autoclave treatment effect on silica alcogel texture. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1991;130:1–7.
Pekala RW, Kong FM. A synthetic route to organic aerogels. Mechanism, structure and properties. Rev Phys Appl. 1989;C4(4):33–40.
Pekala RW, Alviso CT, Kong FM, Hulsey SS. Aerogels derived from multifunctional organic monomers. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1992;145:90–8.
Perin L, Faivre AL, Calas-Etienne S, Woignier T. Nanostructural damage associated with isostatic compression of silica aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2004;333:68–73.
Phalippou J, Woignier T, Prassas M. Glasses from aerogels. Part I : the synthesis of monolithic aerogels. J Mater Sci. 1990;25:3111–7.
Pierre AC, Rigacci A. SiO2 aerogels, Chap 2. In: Aegerter MA, Leventis N, Koebel MM, editors. Aerogels handbook. New York: Springer Science; 2011. p. 21–46.
Pietron JJ, Rolisson DR. Improving the efficiency of titania aerogel-based photovoltaic electrodes by electrochemically grafting isopropyl moieties on the titania surface. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2004;350:107–12.
Power M, Hosticka B, Black E, Daitch C, Norris P. Aerogels as biosensors: viral particle detection by bacteria immobilized on large pore aerogel. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;285:303–8.
Prakash SS, Brinker CJ, Hurd AJ. Silica aerogels films at ambient temperature. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1995;190:264–75.
Prassas M, Phalippou J, Zarzycki J. Synthesis of monolithic silica gels by hypercritical solvent evacuation. J Mater Sci. 1984;19:1656–65.
Reynes J, Woignier T, Phalippou J. Permeability measurements in composites aerogels: application to nuclear waste storage. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;85:323–7.
Rogacki G, Wawrzyniak P. Diffusion of ethanol-liquid CO2 in silica aerogel. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1995;186:73–7.
Santos A, Ajbary M, Kherbeche A, Pinero M, De la Rosa-Fox N, Esquivias L. Fast CO2 sequestration by aerogel composites. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol. 2008;45:291–7.
Scherer GW. Stress development during supercritical drying. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1992;145:33–40.
Scherer GW. Freezing gels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1993;155:1–25.
Scherer GW. Stress in aerogel during depressurization of autoclave : I. Theory. J Sol-Gel Sci Tech. 1994;3:127–39.
Schwertfeger F, Frank D, Schmidt M. Hydrophobic waterglass based aerogels without solvent exchange or supercritical drying. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;225:24–9.
Sermon PA, Self VA, Sun Y. Doped zirconia aerogels: catalyst and controlled structures and properties. J. Sol-Gel Sci. and Tech. 1997;8:851–6.
Shoup RD. Complex fused silica shapes by a silicate gelation process. In: Mackenzie JD, Ulrich DR, editors. Ultrastructure processing of advanced ceramics. New York: Wiley; 1988. p. 347–54.
Smirnova I, Mamic J, Arlt W. Adsorption of drugs on silica aerogels. Langmuir. 2003;19:8521–5.
Smirnova I, Suttiruengwong S, Seiler M, Arlt W. Dissolution rate enhancement by adsorption of poorly soluble drugs on hydrophilic silica aerogels. Pharm Dev Technol. 2004;9:443–52.
Stumpf C, Gässler KV, Reichenauer G, Fricke J. Dynamic gas flow measurements on aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1992;145:180–4.
Suh DJ, Park T, Kim W, Hong I. Synthesis of high surface area ruthenium oxide aerogels by non alkoxide sol –gel route. J Power Sources. 2003;117:186–91.
Szaniawska K, Murawski L, Pastuszac R, Walewski M, Fantozzi G. Nitridation and densification of SiO2 aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;286:58–63.
Tillotson TM, Hrubesh LW. Transparent ultralow density silica aerogels proposed by a two-step process. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1992;145:44–50.
Toki M, Miyashita S, Takeuchi T, Kande S, Kochi A. A large-size silica glass produced by a new sol-gel process. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1988;100:479–82.
Toledo-Fernandez JA, Mendoza-Serna R, Morales V, De la Rosa-Fox N, Pinero M, Santos A, Esquivias L. Bioactivity of wollastonite/aerogels composites obtained from a TEOS–MTES matrix. J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2008;19:2207–13.
Tsou P. Silica aerogel captures cosmic dust intact. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1995;186:415–27.
Valentin R, Horga R, Bonelli B, Garrone E, Di Renzo F, Quignard F. Acidity of alginate aerogels studied by FTIR spectroscopy of probe molecules. Macromol Symp. 2005;230:71–7.
Valentin R, Bonelli B, Garrone E, Di Renzo F, Quignard F. Accessibility of the functional groups of chitosan aerogel probed by FT-IR-monitored deuteration. Biomacromolecules. 2007;8:3646–50.
Van Bommel MJ, de Haan AB. Drying of silica gels with supercritical carbon liquid. J Mater Sci. 1994;29:943–8.
Venkateswara Rao A, Kulkarni MM. Effect of glycerol additive on physical properties of hydrophobic silica aerogels. Mater Chem Phys. 2003;77:819–25.
Vuillard G, Sanchez M. Vitrification et cristallisation dans le système binaire eau - méthanol. Bull Soc Chim Fr. 1961;10:1877–80.
Wang SY, Wu NL. Tin acid gel shrinkage during CO2 supercritical drying. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;224:259–66.
Wawrzyniak P, Rogacki G, Pruba J, Bartczak Z. Effective diffusion coefficient in the low temperature process of silica aerogel production. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2001;285:50–6.
Wei TY, Lu SY, Chang YC. Rich photoluminescence emission of SnO2–SiO2 composite aerogels prepared with a co-fed precursor sol–gel process. J Chin Inst Chem Eng. 2007;38:477–81.
Wei TY, Kuo CY, Hsu YJ, Lu SY, Chang YC. Tin oxide nanocrystals embedded in silica aerogel: photoluminescence and photocatalysis. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2008;112:580–8.
Woignier T. Contribution à l’obtention de verres par la voie sol-gel [PhD dissertation]. Montpellier; 1984.
Woignier T, Phalippou J, Prassas M. Glasses from aerogels part 2: the aerogel glass transformation. J Mater Sci. 1990;25:3118–26.
Woignier T, Scherer GW, Alaoui A. Stress in aerogel during depressurization of autoclave : II silica gels. J Sol-Gel Sci Tech. 1994;3:141–50.
Woignier T, Primera J, Lamy M, Fehr C, Anglaret E. The use of gels as host matrices for chemical species. Different ways to control the permeability and the mechanical properties. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2005;350:298–306.
Woignier T, Primera J, Duffours L, Dieudonné P. Preservation of the allophanic soils structure by supercritical drying. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2007;109(1–3):370–5.
Woignier T, Duffours L, Colombel P, Durin C. Aerogels materials as space debris collectors. Adv Mater Sci Eng. 2013;2013:484153 .6 pages
Woignier T., Duffours L., Colombel P., Dieudonné P.. Nanoporous clay with carbon sink and pesticide trapping properties. Eur Phys J. 2015; 224: 1945–1962, Special Topics.
Wyley RJ, Wang CT, Peri JB. Vanadium-titanium oxide aerogels catalysts. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1995;186:408–14.
Yao CJ, Liu X, Risen WM. biopolymer containing aerogels : chitosan silica hybrid aerogels, Chap. 18. In: Aegerter MA, Leventis N, Koebel MM, editors. Aerogels handbook. New York: Springer Science; 2011. p. 385–401.
Yim TJ, Kim SY, Yoo KP. Fabrication and thermophysical characterization of nano-porous silica-polyurethane hybrid aerogel by sol-gel processing and supercritical solvent drying technique. Korean J Chem Eng. 2002;19:159–66.
Yoda S, Ohshima S, Ikazaki F. Supercritical drying with zeolite for the preparation of silica aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1998;231:41–8.
Yokogawa H. Transparent silica aerogels blocks for high energy physics research, chap. 28. In: Aegerter MA, Leventis N, Koebel MM, editors. Aerogels handbook. New York: Springer Science; 2011. p. 651–64.
Yokogawa H, Yokoyama M. Hydrophobic silica aerogels. J Non-Cryst Solids. 1995;186:23–9.
Yoldas BE, Annen MJ, Bostaph J. Chemical engineering of aerogel morphology formed under nonsupercritical conditions for thermal insulation. Chem Mater. 2000;12:2475–84.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this entry
Cite this entry
Woignier, T., Phalippou, J., Despetis, F., Calas-Etienne, S. (2018). Aerogel Processing. In: Klein, L., Aparicio, M., Jitianu, A. (eds) Handbook of Sol-Gel Science and Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32101-1_27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32101-1_27
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-32099-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-32101-1
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Chemistry, Materials and Physics