Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Normal Variation in the Anatomy, Biology, and Histology of the Maxillofacial Region

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Contemporary Oral Medicine

  • 1007 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter discusses the normal anatomy of the maxillofacial region and variations thereof when present and clinically relevant. Single or rare cases of an anatomical variation are excluded, as are very minor variations, such as deviations in the course of a nerve in the range of millimeters. Gross anatomy and histology of the most relevant structures in the maxillofacial region are described by anatomical region.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Agur AMR, Grant JCB. Grant's atlas of anatomy. 13th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013. xiv, 871 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Abdallah M, AlHadidi A, Hammad M, Al-Ahmad H, Saleh R. Original article: prevalence and distribution of dental anomalies: a comparison between maxillary and mandibular tooth agenesis. Am J Orthod Dentof Orthoped. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajodo.2015.05.024.

  • Amr B, Monib S. Lingual thyroid: a case report. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2011;2(8):313–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Arda O, Göksügür N, Tüzün Y. Basic histological structure and functions of facial skin. Clin Dermatol. 2014;32(1):3–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aslan BI, Akarslan ZZ. Teeth number anomalies in permanent dentition among non-syndromic dental patients. Coll Antropol. 2013;37(1):115–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avery J, Steele P, Avery N. Oral bevelopment and histology (Avery JK (ed); Steele PF; Avery N (asso ed)). Stuttgart/New York: Thieme; 2002, c2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker E, Schünke M, Schulte E, Schumacher U. Anatomy for dental medicine. New York: Thieme; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaini T, Duailibi-Neto E, Chilvarquer I, Melani R. Original communication: human identification through frontal sinus 3D superimposition: pilot study with cone beam computer tomography. J Forensic Legal Med. 2015;36:63–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergdahl M. Salivary flow and oral complaints in adult dental patients. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2000;28(1):59–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berge JK, Bergman RA. Variations in size and in symmetry of foramina of the human skull. Clin Anat. 2001;14:406–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergman RA, Afifi AK, Miyauchi R. Illustrated encyclopedia of human anatomic variation, 2006. Anatomyatlases.org. Accessed 24 Apr 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkovitz BK, Holland GR, Moxham BJ. Oral anatomy, histology and embryology. Elsevier; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkovitz B, Moxham B, Newman H. The periodontal ligament in health and disease. London/Baltimore: Mosby-Wolfe; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canaan TJ, Meehan SC. Variations of structure and appearance of the oral mucosa. Dent Clin N Am. 2005;49(1):1–14. vii

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capelli M, Gatti I. Radiological study of maxillary sinus using CBCT: relationship between mucosal thickening and common anatomic variants in chronic rhinosinusitis. J Clin Diag Res. 2016;10(11):7–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cecílio F, Regalo S, Palinkas M, Issa J, Siéssere S, Hallak J, Machado-de-Sousa J, Semprini M. Ageing and surface EMG activity patterns of masticatory muscles. J Oral Rehabil. 2010;37(4):248–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chandrashekar J, Hoon MA, Ryba NJP, Zucker CS. The receptors and cells of the mammalian taste. Nature. 2006; 444:288–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chi AC, Neville BW, Krayer JW, Gonsalves WC. Oral manifestations of systemic disease. Am Fam Physician. 2010;82(11):1381–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi SJ, Lee JW, Song JH. Dental anomaly patterns associated with tooth agenesis. Acta Odontol Scand. 2017;75(3):161–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiego DJ. Essentials of oral histology and embryology-e-book: a clinical approach. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrcanovic B, Custódio A. Anatomical variation in the position of the greater palatine foramen. J Oral Sci. 2010;52(1):109–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ciano J, Beatty B. Regional quantitative histological variations in human oral mucosa. Anat Record. 2015;298(3):562–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daud S, Nambiar P, Hossain M, Rahman M, Bakri M. Changes in cell density and morphology of selected cells of the ageing human dental pulp. Gerodontology. 2016;3:315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eliades A, Papadeli C, Tsirlis A. Mandibular canal, foramina of the mandible and their variations: part II: the clinical relevance of the preoperative radiographic evaluation and report of five cases. Oral Surg. 2016;2:85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eliasson L, Carlen A, Laine M, Birkhed D. Minor Gland and whole saliva in postmenopausal women using a low potency oestrogen (oestriol). Arch Oral Biol. 2003;48(7):511–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fehrenbach MJ, Herring SW. Illustrated anatomy of the head and neck. 4th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier/Saunders; 2012. ix, 317 14 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Fehrenbach MJ, Popowics T.Illustrated dental embryology, histology, and anatomy. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flink H, Tegelberg A, Lagerlof F. Influence of the time of measurement of unstimulated human whole saliva on the diagnosis of hyposalivation. Arch Oral Biol. 2005;50(6):553–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Francis-West P, Ladher R, Barlow A, Graveson A. Signalling interactions during facial development. Mech Dev. 1998;75:3–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frommer J. The human accessory parotid gland: its incidence, nature, and significance. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1977;43:671–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furnas DW. The retaining ligaments of the cheek. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1989;83(1):11–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gallo A, Leonetti F, Torri E, Manciocco V, Simonelli M, DeVincentiis M. Ectopic lingual thyroid as unusual cause of severe dysphagia. Dysphagia. 2001;16(3):220–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garant PR. Oral cells and tissues. Chicago: Quintessence Pub. Co; 2003. c2003

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Bailo B, Toguri C, Eny K, El-Sohemy A. Genetic variation in taste and its influence on food selection. OMICS. 2009;1:69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gartner LP. Textbook of histology. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gartner L, Hiatt J. Color atlas and text of histology. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013. c2014

    Google Scholar 

  • Gataa I, Faris B. Patterns and surgical significance of facial nerve branching within the parotid gland in 43 cases. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2016;2:161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gomes RR, Fonseca JC, Paula LM, Acevedo AC, Mestrinho HD. Dental anomalies in primary dentition and their corresponding permanent teeth. Clin Oral Investig. 2014;4:1361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonçalves PF, et al. Dental cementum reviewed: development, structure, composition, regeneration and potential functions. Br J Oral Sci. 2015;4(12):651–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray H, Williams PL, Bannister LH. Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of medicine and surgery. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995. p. 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudjonsson T, et al. Myoepithelial cells: their origin and function in breast morphogenesis and neoplasia. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2005;10(3):261–72.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gueiros LA, Soares MS, Leao JC. Impact of ageing and drug consumption on oral health. Gerodontology. 2009;26(4):297–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guiglia R, Di Fede O, Lo Russo L, Sprini D, Rini G-B, Campisi G. Osteoporosis, jawbones and periodontal disease. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2013;18:e93–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Güldner C, Pistorius S, Diogo I, Bien S, Sesterhenn A, Werner J. Analysis of pneumatization and neurovascular structures of the sphenoid sinus using cone-beam tomography (CBT). Acta Radiol. 2012;53(2):214–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gulsahi A. Osteoporosis and jawbones in women. J Int Soc Prev Community Dent. 2015;5:263–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hand A, Pathmanathan D, Field R. Morphological features of the minor salivary glands. Arch Oral Biol. 1999;44(Suppl 1):S3–S10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hand AR, Frank ME. Fundamentals of oral histology and physiology. Oxford: Wiley; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanihara T, Ishida H. Frequency variations of discrete cranial traits in major human populations. IV. Vessel and nerve related variations. J Anat. 2001;199(Pt 3):273–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hellquist H, Skalova A. Histopathology of the salivary glands, vol. 2014. Heidelberg: Springer; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiatt JL, Gartner LP. Textbook of head and neck anatomy. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott William & Wilkins; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hung-Huey T. Panoramic radiographic findings of the mandibular foramen from deciduous to early permanent dentition. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2004;28(3):215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutto J, Vattoth S. A practical review of the muscles of facial mimicry with special emphasis on the superficial musculoaponeurotic system. Am J Roentgenol. 2015;204(1):W19–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inoue H, Ono K, Masuda W, Morimoto Y, Tanaka T, Yokota M, et al. Gender difference in unstimulated whole saliva flow rate and salivary gland sizes. Arch Oral Biol. 2006;51(12):1055–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iván S, Daniela Z. Age effect in the morphological traits performance for sex determination in human skulls and mandibles. Int J Morphol. 2012;1:296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs R, Lambrichts I, Liang X, Martens W, Mraiwa N, Adriaensens P, Gelan J. Oral and maxillofacial radiology: Neurovascularization of the anterior jaw bones revisited using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontol. 2007;103:683–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jorge T, Mario C, Daniela Z, Iván S. Percentage of lateral pterygoid muscle inserted in the disc of human temporomandibular joint. Int J Morphol. 2011;3:965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazunobu S, Tatsurou T, Shinji K, Nao W, Shinobu M, Masafumi O, Shun N, Yasuhiro M. The significance of cone beam computed tomography for the visualization of anatomical variations and lesions in the maxillary sinus for patients hoping to have dental implant-supported maxillary restorations in a private dental office in Japan. Head Face Med. 2014;10(1):3–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye EK, Vokonas P, Garcia RI. Metacarpal cortical bone area predicts tooth loss in men. JDR Clin Transl Res. 2017;2:179–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kels BD, Grzybowski A, Grant-Kels JM. Human Ocular Anatomy. Clin Dermatol. 2015;33:140–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar GS. Orban's oral histology & embryology, vol. 2014. London: Elsevier Health Sciences APAC; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laine M, Leimola-Virtanen R. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on salivary flow rate, buffer effect and pH on perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Arch Oral Biol. 1996;41(1):91–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leo J, Cassell M, Bergman R. Variation in human infraorbital nerve, canal and foramen. Ann Anat. 1995;1:93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madani M, Berardi T, Stoopler ET. Anatomic and examination considerations of the oral cavity. Med Clin North Am. 2014;98(6):1225–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madani FM, Kuperstein AS. Normal variations of oral anatomy and common oral soft tissue lesions: evaluation and management. Med Clin North Am. 2014;98(6):1281–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malpas P. Anomalies of the Mylohyoid Muscle. J Anat. 1926; 61(Pt 1):64–67.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mangalgiri A, Namdev LN, Mahore D, Kapre M. The study of higher origin of facial artery and its surgical significance. In J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2015;67(1):72–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merchant AT. Low bone mineral density based on metacarpal cortical bone area may predict tooth loss in older men. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2017;17:298–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mays JW, Sarmadi M, Moutsopoulos NM. Oral manifestations of systemic autoimmune and inflammatory diseases: diagnosis and clinical management. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2012;12(3 Suppl):265–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMinn RMH. Last’s anatomy, regional and applied. 9th ed. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenna G, Burke FM. Age-related oral changes. Dent Update. 2010;37(8):519–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Medbery R, Yousem D, Needham M, Kligerman M. Variation in parotid gland size, configuration, and anatomic relations. Radiother Oncol. 2000;54(1):87–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miletich I. Introduction to salivary glands: structure, function and embryonic development. Front Oral Biol. 2010;14:1–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohl N. The temporomandibular joint. Textbook of occlusion. Chicago: Quintessence Publishing Co. Inc; 1988. p. 81–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morriss-Kay G, Ruberte E, Fukiishi Y. Mammalian neural crest and neural crest derivatives. Ann Anat. 1993;175(6):501–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moynihan P, Petersen PE. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of dental diseases. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7(1A):201–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mukhopadhyay S, Mitra S. Anomalies in primary dentition: their distribution and correlation with permanent dentition. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2014;5(1):139.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mydlová M, Dupej J, Koudelová J, Velemínská J. Sexual dimorphism of facial appearance in ageing human adults: a cross-sectional study. Forensic Sci Int. 2015;257:519.e1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nagler RM. Salivary glands and the aging process: mechanistic aspects, health-status and medicinal-efficacy monitoring. Biogerontology. 2004;5(4):223–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nanci A. Ten Cate’s oral histology Development, Structure, and Function. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nishimura T, Suzuki K. Anatomy of oral respiration: morphology of the oral cavity and pharynx. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 2003;123:25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norton NS, Netter FH. Netter's head and neck anatomy for dentistry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders; 2012. xii, 659 p

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Rahilly R, Müller F. Basic human anatomy : a regional study of human structure. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1983. xi, 566 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry ME. The specialised structure of crypt epithelium in the human palatine tonsil and its functional significance. J Anat. 1994;185(Pt 1):111–27.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Picciani BL, Domingos TA, Teixeira-Souza T, Santos Vde C, Gonzaga HF, Cardoso-Oliveira J, et al. Geographic tongue and psoriasis: clinical, histopathological, immunohistochemical and genetic correlation - a literature review. An Bras Dermatol. 2016;91(4):410–21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Provenza DV. Fundamentals of oral histology and embryology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qian L, Tian X, Zeng L, Gong Y, Wei B. Dental implants: analysis of the morphology of maxillary sinus septa on reconstructed cone-beam computed tomography images. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2016;74:729–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rattan SI. Biology of ageing: principles, challenges and perspectives. Romanian J Morphol Embryol. 2015;56(4):1251–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds SC, Chow AW. Life-threatening infections of the peripharyngeal and deep fascial spaces of the head and neck. Infect Dis Clin NA. 2007;21:557–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson C, Kirkham J, Shore RC. Dental enamel formation to destruction. Boca Raton: CRC press; 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodella L, Buffoli B, Labanca M, Rezzani R. Review: a review of the mandibular and maxillary nerve supplies and their clinical relevance. Arch Oral Biol. 2012;57:323–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roed-Petersen B, Renstrup G. A topographical classification of the oral mucosa suitable for electronic data processing its application to 560 leukoplakias. Acta Odontol Scand. 1969;27(6):681–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scardina GA, Messina P. Good oral health and diet. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2012;2012:720692.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schrödter S, Biermann E, Halata Z. Histological evaluation of age-related changes in human respiratory mucosa of the middle turbinate. Anat Embryol (Berl). 2003;207(1):19–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha MK, Ghartimagar D, Ghosh A. Diagnostic accuracy of computed tomogram in the evaluation of a neck mass. J Nepal Med Assoc. 2011;51(184):164–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh D, Hsu C, Kwan G, Bhuta S, Skalski M, Jones R. High resolution CT study of the chorda tympani nerve and normal anatomical variation. Jpn J Radiol. 2015;5:279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snell RS. Clinical anatomy by regions. 9th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012. 754 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephan C, Simpson E, Byrd J. Facial soft tissue depth statistics and enhanced point estimators for craniofacial identification: the debut of the Shorth and the 75-Shormax. J Forensic Sci. 2013;58(6):1439–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stojčev Stajčić L, Gačić B, Popović N, Stajčić Z. Research paper: anatomical study of the pterygopalatine fossa pertinent to the maxillary nerve block at the foramen rotundum. Int J Oral Maxillof Surg. 2010;39:493–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Štoković N, Trkulja V, Dumić-Čule I, Čuković-Bagić I, Lauc T, Vukičević S, Grgurević L. Sphenoid sinus types, dimensions and relationship with surrounding structures. Ann Anat. 2016;203:69–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stratmann U, Schaarschmidt K, Santamaria P. Morphometric investigation of condylar cartilage and disc thickness in the human temporomandibular joint: significance for the definition of osteoarthritic changes. J Oral Pathol Med. 1996;25(5):200–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamgadge S, et al. Myoepithelial cell–a morphologic diversity–a review. Res Rev J Dent. 2013;4(1):5–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tapia CJ, Cantín M, Zavando D, Suazo GI. Percentage of lateral pterygoid muscle inserted in the human temporomandibular joint disc. Int J Morphol. 2011;29(3):965–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thesleff I. Homeobox genes and growth factors in regulation of craniofacial and tooth morphogenesis. Acta Odontol Scand. 1995;53:129–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Theveneau E, Mayor R. Neural crest delamination and migration: from epithelium-to-mesenchyme transition to collective cell migration. Dev Biol. 2012;366(1):34–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas DM, Mirowski GW. Nutrition and oral mucosal diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2010;28(4):426–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiwari M. Science behind human saliva. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2011;2(1):53–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Walker WB. The oral cavity and associated structures. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical methods: the history, physical, and laboratory examinations. 3rd ed. Boston: Butterworths; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warshafsky D, Goldenberg D, Kanekar SG. Imaging anatomy of deep neck spaces. Otolaryngol Clin NA. 2012;45:1203–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waugh A, Grant AW, Chambers G. Ross and Wilson anatomy and physiology in health and illness. Edinburgh: Elsevier; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winning T, Townsend G. Oral mucosal embryology and histology. Clin Dermatol. 2000;18:499–511.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witt M, Reutter K. Anatomy of the tongue and taste buds. In: Handbook of olfaction and gustation. 3rd ed. Hoboken: Wiley; 2015. p. 637–63.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf K, Brokaw E, Bell A, Joy A. Variant inferior alveolar nerves and implications for local Anesthesia. Anesth Prog. 2016;63(2):84–90.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wood C. The age-related emergence of cranial morphological variation. Forensic Sci Int. 2015;251:220.e1–220.e20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yap T, McCullough M. Oral medicine and the ageing population. Aust Dent J. 2015;60(Suppl 1):44–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young B, Woodford P, O'Dowd G. Wheater's functional histology: a text and colour atlas. Saint Louis: Elsevier Health Sciences; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang B, Yang Z, Zhang R, Liu L, Zhang F, Chen J, Zhang K. Are the patients with anatomic variation of the sublingual/Wharton's duct system predisposed to ranula formation? Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2016;83:69–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu W, Hu F, Liu X, Guo S, Tao Q. Role of the accessory parotid gland in the Etiology of Parotitis: statistical analysis of Sialographic features. PLoS One. 2016;11(2):1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World population prospects: the 2017 revision, key findings and advance tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP/248.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Rita Hardiman

  2. UWA Dental School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia

    Omar Kujan

  3. Faculty of Dentistry, Damascus University, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic

    Nabil Kochaji

Authors
  1. Rita Hardiman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Omar Kujan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nabil Kochaji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rita Hardiman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. UWA Dental School, University of Western Australia UWA Dental School, Perth, Queensland, Australia

    Camile S. Farah

  2. Perth Oral Medicine & Dental Sleep Centr, West Leederville, Western Autralia, Australia

    Ramesh Balasubramaniam

  3. Melbourne Dental School Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Healt, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Michael John McCullough

Section Editor information

  1. Oral Anatomy, Medicine, and Surgery Section, Melbourne Dental School, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry & Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia

    Michael J. McCullough

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Hardiman, R., Kujan, O., Kochaji, N. (2018). Normal Variation in the Anatomy, Biology, and Histology of the Maxillofacial Region. In: Farah, C., Balasubramaniam, R., McCullough, M. (eds) Contemporary Oral Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28100-1_2-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28100-1_2-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-28100-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-28100-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation