Synonyms/Related Words
Definition
Independence can refer to a self-construal characterized by using one’s self as the primary referent for thoughts, feelings, and actions and a sense of the self as being separate, distinct, or independent from others (Markus and Kitayama 1991, 2010). An independent self-construal often includes an assumption of equality with others and valuing self-expression and personal influence (Stephens et al. 2014).
Introduction
Independence is often researched in reference to self-construals and cultural norms. Since Markus and Kitayama (1991) seminal piece summarizing differences between independent and interdependent cultures was published, both independence and interdependence have become an immense source of social-psychological research with much of the focus on examining cross-cultural differences in the two constructs.
Research on Independence
Independence may be most extensively...
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References
Fiske, A. P., Kitayama, S., Markus, H., & Nisbett, R. E. (1998). The cultural matrix of social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. II). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Greenfield, P. M. (2009). Linking social change and developmental change: Shifting pathways of human development. Developmental psychology, 45(2), 401.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological review, 98(2), 224.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 420–430.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C. S., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities' focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1178.
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, L. T. (2014). Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 611–634.
Tibbetts, Y., Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., & Boston, J. S. (2016). Attitudes and social cognition: Affirming independence: Exploring mechanisms underlying a values affirmation intervention for first-generation students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(5), 635–659.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism & collectivism. Boulder: Westview Press.
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Tibbetts, Y. (2016). Independence. In: Zeigler-Hill, V., Shackelford, T. (eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1083-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1083-1
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