Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assertiveness

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences

Synonyms

Candid; Expressive; Forthright; Straightforward

Definition

Assertiveness involves appropriately expressing ideas, feelings, and boundaries while respecting other’s rights, maintaining positive affect in the receiver, and considering potential consequences of the expression. It includes both positive and negative expressions and seeks to achieve personal and/or instrumental goals.

Foundations of Assertiveness

Popular perceptions and actual assertiveness differ in kind and in degree (Ames 2009). Even though psychology has consistently maintained that assertiveness respects mutualrights and fosters positive affect, everyday perceptions of assertiveness tend to include even aggressive and relationship damaging expressions. Where assertiveness creates positive affect in the receiver, aggression is hostile, shows little respect for the other, and fails to consider potential consequences of the action. Where assertive personalities have high affection, inclusion, and pleasure...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 3,499.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 5,499.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Amanatullah, E. T., & Tinsley, C. H. (2013). Punishing female negotiators for asserting too much…or not enough: Exploring why advocacy moderates backlash against assertive female negotiators. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 120(1), 110–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.03.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, D. (2009). Pushing up to a point: Assertiveness and effectiveness in leadership and interpersonal dynamics. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 111–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.06.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, D. R., & Flynn, F. J. (2007). What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between assertiveness and leadership. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(2), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. M., & Martin, M. M. (1995). Communication motives of assertive and responsive communicators. Communication Research Reports, 12(2), 186–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowles, H. R., Babcock, L., & McGinn, K. (2005). Constraints and triggers: Situational mechanics of gender in negotiation (Scholarly Report No. ID 832626). Rochester: Social Science Research Network. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=832626

  • Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, M. (1988). Gender, age, and the social evaluation of assertion. Behavior Modification, 12(4), 549–564. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455880124004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisler, R., Hersen, M., Miller, P., & Blanchard, E. (1975). Situational determinants of assertive behaviors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 330–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Florian, V., & Zernitsky-shurka, E. (1987). The effect of culture and gender on self-reported assertive behavior. International Journal of Psychology, 22(1), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207598708246769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foste, E. A., & Botero, I. C. (2012). Personal reputation effects of upward communication on impressions about new employees. Management Communication Quarterly, 26(1), 48–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318911411039.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A. (1979). Assertiveness in three cultures: Multidimensionality and cultural differences. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35(3), 522–527. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(197907)35:3<522::AID-JCLP2270350310>3.0.CO;2-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galassi, J. P., Delo, J. S., Galassi, M. D., & Bastien, S. (1974). The college self-expression scale: A measure of assertiveness. Behavior Therapy, 5(2), 165–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. Garden City: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Infante, D. A., & Wigley, C. J. (1986). Verbal aggressiveness: An interpersonal model and measure. Communication Monographs, 53(1), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637758609376126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, M., & Dragojevic, M. (2011). Explaining the process of resistance to persuasion: A politeness theory-based approach. Communication Research. 10.1177/0093650211420136

    Google Scholar 

  • Kassing, J. W. (1997). Articulating, antagonizing, and displacing: A model of employee dissent. Communication Studies, 48(4), 311–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510979709368510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lakoff, R. T. (1975). Language and woman’s place. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, A. A. (1971). Behavior therapy & beyond. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFall, R. M., & Lillesand, D. B. (1971). Behavior rehearsal with modeling and coaching in assertion training. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77(3), 313–323.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, R., & Warnick, B. (1976). Assertiveness as communication construct. Human Communication Research, 3, 62–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfafman, T. M., & McEwan, B. (2014a). Polite women at work: Negotiating professional identity through strategic assertiveness. Women’s Studies in Communication, 37(2), 202–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2014.911231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rakos, R. F. (1991). Assertive behavior: Theory, research, and training. In London. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rathus, S. A. (1973). A 30-item schedule for assessing assertive behavior. Behavior Therapy, 4(3), 398–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004). Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 157–176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sigler, K., Burnett, A., & Child, J. T. (2008). A regional analysis of assertiveness. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 37(2), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475750802533364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. M. (1985). Language, the sexes, and society. Oxford/New York: B. Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • St Lawrence, J. (1987). Assessment of assertion. Progress in Behavior Modification, 21, 152–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, J. J., Albrecht, T. L., & Taylor, S. (1990). Process, organizational, relational, and personal determinants of managerial compliance-gaining communication strategies. Journal of Business Communication, 27(4), 331–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weeks, R. E., & Lefebvre, R. C. (1982). The assertive interaction coding system. Journal of Behavioral Assessment, 4(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01321383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolpe, J. (1954). Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotherapeutic effects. AMA Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 72(2), 205–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolpe, J., & Lazarus, A. A. (1966). Behavior therapy techniques; a guide to the treatment of neuroses. Oxford/New York: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

Selected Publications

  • Pfafman, T. (2010). Activating the spirit of work: Business advice books and the use of pastoral power to manage employees. Iowa Journal of Communication, 42, 151–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfafman, T., & Bochantin, J. (2012). Negotiating power paradoxes: Contradictions in women’s constructions of organizational power. Communication Studies, 63, 5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfafman, T. M., & McEwan, B. (2014). Polite women at work: Negotiating professional identity through strategic assertiveness. Women’s Studies in Communication, 37(2), 202–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfafman, T. M., Carpenter, C. J., & Tang, Y. (2015). The politics of racism: Constructions of African immigrants in China on ChinaSMACK. Communication, Culture & Critique. https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Humanities and Communication Division, Lake Land College, Mattoon, IL, USA

    Tessa Pfafman

Authors
  1. Tessa Pfafman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tessa Pfafman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Oakland University, Rochester, MI, USA

    Virgil Zeigler-Hill

  2. Oakland University, Rochester, MI, USA

    Todd K. Shackelford

Section Editor information

  1. Lakehead University, Orillia, ON, Canada

    Beth A. Visser

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Pfafman, T. (2020). Assertiveness. In: Zeigler-Hill, V., Shackelford, T.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1044

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation