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Biodegradation, Biosynthesis, Isolation, and Applications of Chitin and Chitosan

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Handbook of Biodegradable Materials

Abstract

Chitin is a most abundant fibrous matter comprised of polysaccharide carbohydrates. Chitin is a dominant and main building material in the exoskeleton of many living organisms, including arthropods, crustaceans, fungi, and fishes. Chitin strengthens the exoskeleton, and enzymatic and chemical deacetylation by removing an acetyl group is converted into linear polysaccharide chitosan. In nature, chitosan is a carbohydrate acquired from the degradation of the hard skeleton of shellfish, arthropods, and crustaceans. Crustaceans and shellfishes contribute a significant proportion to total chitin used in the food-processing industry, besides having considerable applications in the biomedical field. The organisms that synthesize chitin employed a rigorous and complex enzymatic mechanism for degradation and body homeostasis. The enzyme uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine (UDPGlcNAc) is important for chitin synthesis; it brings out small chitin polymers, while a hydrolytic chitinase enzyme breaks down the chitin. In nature, the major biotic factor that degrades breaks down and mediates chitin hydrolysis is bacteria. Chitin and chitosan have multiple properties and features, including translucence, pliability, resilience, toughness, biodegradability, biocompatibility, innocuous film formation, revolutionizing the biomedical field. The emerging application of nanotechnology has utilized chitin and chitosan-originated materials to achieve innovations to transform the biomedical field. The multiple chitins and chitosan applications have contributed a major role in the polymer industry, especially in fabricating polymer scaffolds.

Biomedical sciences face many challenges, and the major role chitin and chitosan played in terms of their nano-/microparticles and encapsulation of cargos are interesting. The uniquely designed nanocarriers and microencapsulation techniques are very interesting based on chitin-based materials for effectiveness in delivering drugs, biologics, and vaccines. The encapsulated drugs and nanoparticles are specific to applications, dimension, and cargo-release properties. Chitosan has been used effectively and efficiently in hydrogel solutions, nano-/microparticles, drug and vaccine delivery, antibacterial, wound healing, anticancer, cancer diagnosis, chitin- and chitosan-based dressings, ophthalmology, antibacterial properties, antithrombogenic and hemostatic materials, antiaging cosmetics, antitumor activity, and vaccine adjuvant as customized biochemical properties; therefore it is one of the most critical, essential, and well-researched biomaterials. This book chapter is aimed to thoroughly discuss the biosynthesis, isolation, and applications of chitin and chitosan under various headings.

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Abbreviations

(GlcNac)2:

(N-acetylglucosamine)2

ADP:

Adenosine diphosphate

B cell:

B cells

BPN:

Block-copolymer nanoparticles

BTTG:

British Textile Technology Group

CD4+Th2 cell:

Th2 subset of CD4+ T cells synthesizing cytokines

CDS−T cell:

The cluster of differentiation in T cell

CMCS:

Cell-mediated cytotoxicity

CO2:

Carbon dioxide

COS:

Chitosan oligosaccharide

CS:

Chitin synthase

CS:

Cytokine storm

CSN:

Chitosan glutamate

CTL:

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes

DC:

Dendritic cells

DD:

Degree of deacetylation

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid

FA:

Fatty acid

GH:

Glycosyl hydrolases

GH-18:

Glycoside hydrolase family 18

GH-19:

Glycoside hydrolase family 19

GlcN:

d-glucosamine, a 2-amino-2-deoxy-d-glucopyranose

GlcNAc:

N-acetylglucosamine

GlNac:

N-acetylgalactosamine

GPIa-Iia:

Integrin alpha(2)beta(1)-very late antigen 2

GPIb-IX-V:

GPIb-IX-V complex

GPIIa-IIIb:

Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa integrin αIIbβ3

GPIIb-IIIa:

Immune-mediated thrombocytopenia

GPVI:

Immunoglobulin receptor-very late glycoprotein antigen (VI)

HCPT:

10-hydroxycamptothecin

HCPT:

Hyperosmolar conjunctival provocation test

HPLC:

High-pressure liquid chromatography

IFNs:

Type I interferons

IgA:

Immunoglobulin A

IgG:

Immunoglobulin G

IgN:

Immunoglobulin N

IL-13:

Interleukin-13

IL-4:

Interleukin-14

IL-6:

Interleukin 6 function as pro-inflammatory cytokine and an anti-inflammatory myokine

IR:

Infrared

LMPOs:

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases

LPL:

Lipoprotein lipase

M cells:

Mucosa-associated lymphoid cells

MAPK:

Mitogen-activated protein kinases

M-cell:

Microfold cells

MHC-I and MHC-II:

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II proteins

MR:

Magnetic resonance

NCBI:

National Center for Biotechnology Information

NF-kB:

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)

NIBRG-14:

National Institute of Biomedical Genomics-14

NK:

Natural killer

NMR:

Nuclear magnetic resonance

PCL:

Poly-ɛ-caprolactone

PDGF:

Platelet-derived growth factor

PELCL (PDGF):

Collagen/poly(l-lactic acid-co-ε-caprolactone)

pH:

Power of H+ ion concentration which measures acidic/basic response of medium

PHHYCN:

Phosphatidylcholine hyaluronic acid chitin

PLC:

Phospholipase C, an assembly of enzymes lading to hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

PLGA (VEGF):

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid

QD:

Quantum dot

RNA:

Ribonucleic acid

SARS-COV-2:

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

STING-cGAS:

Stimulator of interferon genes-cytosolic cyclic GMP–AMP synthase

Syk:

Spleen tyrosine kinase

T cell:

Cells originated from thymus

TMC:

N, N, N-trimethylated chitosan

TNF-α:

Tumor necrosis factor α

TNF-γ :

Tumor necrosis factor γ

TXA2:

Thromboxane A2/prostaglandin H2

UDPGlcNAc:

Uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine glycosyltransferases

UDP-N:

Uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine

UV:

Ultraviolet

VEC:

Vascular endothelial cells

VEGF:

Vascular endothelial growth factor

VSMC:

Vascular smooth muscle cells

VWF:

von Willebrand factor

ZnS:

Doped-zinc sulfide

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar, India

    Showket Ahmad Dar

  2. Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Bisha, Bisha, Saudi Arabia

    Fahd Mohammed Abd Al Galil

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  1. Showket Ahmad Dar
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  1. Chemistry Department, Al-Azhar University, Assiut, Egypt

    Gomaa A. M. Ali

  2. Vice President of Advanced Material Research, Stanley Black & Decker, Inc, Connecticut, USA

    Abdel Salam H. Makhlouf

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Ahmad Dar, S., Abd Al Galil, F.M. (2022). Biodegradation, Biosynthesis, Isolation, and Applications of Chitin and Chitosan. In: Ali, G.A.M., Makhlouf, A.S.H. (eds) Handbook of Biodegradable Materials. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83783-9_72-1

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