Skip to main content

Public Health Education, Practice, and Research in China

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Medical and Health Sciences in Developing Countries

Abstract

China is a country in East Asia. It is the world’s most populous country with a population exceeding 1.4 billion people. China has achieved significant progress in the last 50 years in containing infectious diseases and enhancing public health and cleanliness. Chinese public health professionals, however, are facing more challenges than ever in the twenty-first century as a result of the negative consequences brought on by the aging of the population and the burdens of diseases, urbanization, industrialization, and globalization. The requirements of today cannot be met by outdated public health operating frameworks. The key issues are a lack of ability to respond to emergencies involving public health, extreme inequality in access to health care, and slow development of public health information systems. China’s public health will be able to gradually meet the needs of social development and the rising public demand for health care services only when it is guided by information technology, globalization, technological advancement, and humanization.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Admissions, C. (2015). Southeast University. Retrieved from https://www.china-admissions.com/southeast-university/masters-public-health-global-health/#:~:text=The%20applicant%20must%20be%20a,the%20field%20of%20public%20health

  • Allen, L. M., Hay, M., & Palermo, C. (2022). Evaluation in health professions education-Is measuring outcomes enough? Medical Education, 56(1), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.14654

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashraf, M. A., Tsegay, S. M., & Meijia, Y. (2021). Blended learning for diverse classrooms: Qualitative experimental study with in-service teachers. SAGE Open, 11(3), 21582440211030623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayenigbara, I. O. (2020). COVID-19: An international public health concern. Central Asian Journal of Global Health, 9(1), e466. https://doi.org/10.5195/cajgh.2020.466

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baikady, R., & Nadesan, V. (2022). Social work field education in India and China: A comparison. In The Routledge handbook of social work field education in the Global South (pp. 197–206). Routledge.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Barak, M., & Yuan, S. (2021). A cultural perspective to project-based learning and the cultivation of innovative thinking. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 39, 100766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100766

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonilla-Aldana, D. K., Holguin-Rivera, Y., Cortes-Bonilla, I., Cardona-Trujillo, M. C., García-Barco, A., Bedoya-Arias, H. A., … Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. (2020). Coronavirus infections reported by ProMED, February 2000–January 2020. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 35, 101575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brief, P. (2020). Education during COVID-19 and beyond. United Nations, 1–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bu, L. (2021). Rockefeller foundation’s global health and China’s modern health development. Revista História: Debatese Tendências, 21(3), 54–79. https://doi.org/10.5335/hdtv.21n.3.12855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calleja, N., AbdAllah, A., Abad, N., Ahmed, N., Albarracin, D., Altieri, E., … Bayer, J. (2021). A public health research agenda for managing infodemics: Methods and results of the first WHO infodemiology conference. JMIR Infodemiology, 1(1), e30979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C., & Cornish, F. (2021). Public health activism in changing times: Re-locating collective agency. Critical Public Health, 31, 125–133. Taylor & Francis.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Challa, K. T., Sayed, A., & Acharya, Y. (2021). Modern techniques of teaching and learning in medical education: A descriptive literature review. MedEdPublish, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.15694/mep.2021.000018.1

  • China Admissions. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.china-admissions.com/southeast-university/masters-public-health-global-health/

  • China, T. s. c. T. p. s. r. o. (2022, September 13). China’s average life expectancy rises to 78.2 years. Retrieved from https://english.www.gov.cn/statecouncil/ministries/202207/13/content_WS62cdfd4dc6d02e533532da48.html#:~:text=BEIJING%20%E2%80%94%20Average%20life%20expectancy%2C%20a,from%2077.93%20years%20in%202020

  • Cui, F., Shen, L., Li, L., Wang, H., Wang, F., Bi, S., … Zheng, H. (2017). Prevention of chronic hepatitis B after 3 decades of escalating vaccination policy, China. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 23(5), 765.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cui, S., Zhang, C., Wang, S., Zhang, X., Wang, L., Zhang, L., … Zhang, K. (2021). Experiences and attitudes of elementary school students and their parents toward online learning in China during the COVID-19 pandemic: Questionnaire study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(5), e24496.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ding, X., Zhao, L., Chu, H., Tong, N., Ni, C., Hu, Z., … Wang, M. (2014). Assessing the effectiveness of problem-based learning of preventive medicine education in China. Scientific Reports, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep05126.

  • Fan, W., Liu, C., Zhang, Y., Yang, Z., Li, J., & Huang, S. (2021). Epidemiology and associated factors of gingivitis in adolescents in Guangdong Province, Southern China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Oral Health, 21(1), 311. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-021-01666-1

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, M., Zuidema, C., Bauman, B., Burke, T., & Sheehan, M. (2019). Integrating public health into climate change policy and planning: State of practice update. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(18), 3232.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fu, J.-C. (2022). Health and medicine in modern China. In Oxford research encyclopedia of Asian History.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, S. M., Li, L. M., Tang, J. L., Ma, X., Hu, Y. H., Meng, Q. Y., & Fu, H. (2010). The challenges of public health education with a particular reference to China. Public Health, 124(4), 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2010.02.009

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, J., Li, X., & Wang, L. (2018). Higher education in China. Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gu, J., Zhen, T., Song, Y., & Xu, L. (2019). Job satisfaction of certified primary care physicians in rural Shandong Province, China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Health Services Research, 19(1), 75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-3893-8

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hantrais, L., Allin, P., Kritikos, M., Sogomonjan, M., Anand, P. B., Livingstone, S., … Innes, M. (2021). Covid-19 and the digital revolution. Contemporary Social Science, 16(2), 256–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hou, J., Wang, Z., Liu, X., Luo, Y., Sabharwal, S., Wang, N., & Meng, Q. (2018). Public health education at China’s higher education institutions: A time-series analysis from 1998 to 2012. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 679. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5605-4

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • How to conduct online research in China. (2017). Retrieved from https://kadence.com/how-to-conduct-online-research-in-china/

  • Huang, Q., & Kang, Y. S. (2020). Mathematical modeling of COVID-19 control and prevention based on immigration population data in China: Model development and validation. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 6(2), e18638.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, Y., Guan, Y.-J., Dai, D.-W., Huang, W., & Huang, Z.-Y. (2019). Prevalence of stress and its determinants among residents enrolled in China standardized training program for resident doctor (C-STRD) program: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One, 14(1), e0207258.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, Q., Horta, H., & Yuen, M. (2022). Factors related to university teaching that influence academic success of international medical students in China. F1000Research, 11, 894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kent, B. A., Holman, C., Amoako, E., Antonietti, A., Azam, J. M., Ballhausen, H., … Chen, Y.-C. (2022). Recommendations for empowering early career researchers to improve research culture and practice. PLoS Biology, 20(7), e3001680.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khorram-Manesh, A., Dulebenets, M. A., & Goniewicz, K. (2021). Implementing public health strategies—the need for educational initiatives: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(11), 5888.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, K., & Pande, B. P. (2021). Rise of online teaching and learning processes during COVID-19 pandemic. In Predictive and preventive measures for COVID-19 pandemic (pp. 251–271). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, L. (2004). The current state of public health in China. Annual Review of Public Health, 25, 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123116

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, X., Krumholz, H. M., Yip, W., Cheng, K. K., De Maeseneer, J., Meng, Q., … Su, M. (2020a). Quality of primary health care in China: Challenges and recommendations. The Lancet, 395(10239), 1802–1812.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, Y. Q., Hao, C., & Guo, H. Y. (2020b). Examining inequality in the public health workforce distribution in the centers for disease control and prevention (CDCs) system in China, 2008–2017. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences, 33(5), 374–383.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, T., Wang, W., Li, Z., Wang, H., & Liu, X. (2022). Problem-based or lecture-based learning, old topic in the new field: A meta-analysis on the effects of PBL teaching method in Chinese standardized residency training. BMC Medical Education, 22(1), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y.-T. (2022). Navigating between political authorities: Chinese Rockefeller fellows in biology and chemistry and their career trajectories from 1949 to 1966. In Knowledge, power, and networks (pp. 289–321). Brill.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S., Yang, L., Zhang, C., Xiang, Y.-T., Liu, Z., Hu, S., & Zhang, B. (2020a). Online mental health services in China during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(4), e17–e18.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W., Liang, Y., Bao, X., Qin, J., & Lim, M. K. (2020b). China’s logistics development trends in the post COVID-19 era. International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications, 25(6), 965–976. https://doi.org/10.1080/13675567.2020.1837760

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S., Chen, Y., Shen, Q., & Gao, X. (2022a). Sustainable professional development of German language teachers in China: Research assessment and external research funding. Sustainability, 14(16), 9910.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S., Gu, Y., Yang, Y., Schroeder, E., & Chen, Y. (2022b). Tackling brain drain at Chinese CDCs: Understanding job preferences of public health doctoral students using a discrete choice experiment survey. Human Resources for Health, 20(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, Q., Liu, L., Wang, Y., Shi, L., Xu, Y., Lu, Z., … Yan, W. (2020). Online survey on accessing psychological knowledge and interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic—China, 2020. China CDC Weekly, 2(41), 797.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luo, Y., Su, B., & Zheng, X. (2021). Trends and challenges for population and health during population aging—China, 2015–2050. China CDC Weekly, 3(28), 593.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mao, C., Wang, L., & Li, L. (2019). Historical perspective of progress and achievement on epidemiology in the past 70 years in China. Zhonghua liu Xing Bing xue za zhi= Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi, 40(10), 1173–1179.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McColloch, C., Davis, M., Araujo, A., Theodore, S., Barkley, J., Paek, M., & Henning, T. (2022). Lessons learned for public health workforce development: An evaluation of the centers for disease control and prevention’s laboratory leadership service fellowship. Evaluation and Program Planning, 95, 102147.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mersha, A., Shibiru, S., Girma, M., Ayele, G., Bante, A., Kassa, M., … Shewangizaw, M. (2021). Perceived barriers to the practice of preventive measures for COVID-19 pandemic among health professionals in public health facilities of the Gamo zone, Southern Ethiopia: A phenomenological study. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obidile, J. I. (2021). Creating effective teaching and learning in the classroom through problem based teaching method (PBTM): Guidance for accounting teachers in the developing countries. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 103, 103–112. https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2021/v34i130296

  • Ostrowski, J., Zgliczyński, W. S., Pinkas, J., & Gellert, R. (2022). History of the school of public health at the Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education (1971 to 2021). Wiedza Medyczna, 4(1), 1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pan, S. Q., Chan, L. K., Yan, Y., & Yang, X. (2020). Survey of gross anatomy education in China: The past and the present. Anatomical Sciences Education, 13(3), 390–400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C., Migliaccio, G., Edberg, M., Frehywot, S., & Johnson, G. (2021). Future directions of Doctor of public health education in the United States: A qualitative study. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1057. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11086-z

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, Y., Wu, X., Atkins, S., Zwarentein, M., Zhu, M., Zhan, X. X., … Yan, W. R. (2014). Internet-based health education in China: A content analysis of websites. BMC Medical Education, 14, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-14-16

  • Pregowska, A., Masztalerz, K., Garlińska, M., & Osial, M. (2021). A worldwide journey through distance education—from the post office to virtual, augmented and mixed realities, and education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Education Sciences, 11(3), 118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price, D. W., Davis, D. A., & Filerman, G. L. (2021). “Systems-integrated CME”: The implementation and outcomes imperative for continuing medical education in the learning health care enterprise. NAM Perspectives, 2021. https://doi.org/10.31478/202110a

  • Sayıner, A. A., & Ergönül, E. (2021). E-learning in clinical microbiology and infectious diseases. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 27(11), 1589–1594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schnur, A., Hoekstra, E. J., Barış, E., Wing, J. S., Cairns, K. L., Lee, L. A., … Hadler, S. (2019). Essays by international experts working on the immunization program in China. Immunization program in China, 3, 143–186. Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seibert, S. A. (2021). Problem-based learning: A strategy to foster generation Z’s critical thinking and perseverance. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 16(1), 85–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2020.09.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sell, K., Hommes, F., Fischer, F., & Arnold, L. (2022). Multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinarity within the public health workforce: A scoping review to assess definitions and applications of concepts. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10902.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shi, L., Fan, L., Xiao, H., Chen, Z., Tong, X., Liu, M., & Cao, D. (2019). Constructing a general competency model for Chinese public health physicians: A qualitative and quantitative study. European Journal of Public Health, 29(6), 1184–1191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. (2021). The living soul of Mao Zedong thought. In Chinese ideology (pp. 151–167). Routledge.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Song, D., Wang, M., Li, G., Yu, H., & Shan, Y. (2021). Establishment of Beijing National Medical School Faculty of Dentistry. Zhonghua kou Qiang yi xue za zhi= Zhonghua Kouqiang Yixue Zazhi=. Chinese Journal of Stomatology, 56(11), 1115–1119.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Study Abroad Aide. (2017). Retrieved from https://studyabroadaide.com/masters-in-public-health-china/

  • Sun, L., Zhao, D., Xiong, S., Renne, A., Zheng, Z.-J., Xiang, H., … Yan, L. L. (2021a). Disciplinary development of global health academic degree programs in China. Global Health Journal, 5(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glohj.2021.04.003

  • Sun, Y., Li, C., Zhao, Y., & Sun, J. (2021b). Trends and developments in oral health literacy: A scientometric research study (1991–2020). BDJ Open, 7(1), 1–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sun, M., Wu, K., Yi, X., & Zhang, R. (2022). Exploring the influence of english subject reform in China’s compulsory education system. In Paper presented at the 2021 international conference on education, language and art (ICELA 2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tulchinsky, T. H., & Varavikova, E. A. (2014). Expanding the concept of public health, 43–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-415766-8.00002-1

  • van Zanten, M., McKinley, D., Durante Montiel, I., & Pijano, C. V. (2012). Medical education accreditation in Mexico and The Philippines: Impact on student outcomes. Medical Education, 46(6), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04212.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vuong, B., Tung, D., Tushar, H., Quan, T., & Giao, H. (2021). Determinates of factors influencing job satisfaction and organizational loyalty. Management Science Letters, 11(1), 203–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X. (2022). Experiences, challenges, and prospects of National Medical Licensing Examination in China. BMC Medical Education, 22(1), 1–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, S., & Chen, Y. (2018). Rain classroom: A tool for blended learning with MOOCs. In Paper presented at the proceedings of the fifth annual ACM conference on learning at scale.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, N., Jia, J., Wu, K., Wang, Y., Zhang, C., Cao, W., … Wang, Z. (2017). Factors that influence full-time MPH students’ willingness in China: Would you apply again for an MPH graduate degree if you had another opportunity? BMC Medical Education, 17(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-017-0873-8

  • Wang, R.-N., Zhang, Y.-C., Yu, B.-T., He, Y.-T., Li, B., & Zhang, Y.-L. (2022). Spatio-temporal evolution and trend prediction of the incidence of Class B notifiable infectious diseases in China: A sample of statistical data from 2007 to 2020. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1208. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13566-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, B., Lu, L., Zhang, Z. Y., & Ma, Z. Y. (2011). Bridging the gap between education and practice in public health, with particular reference to less-developed provinces in China. Public Health, 125(1), 25–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2010.10.006

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, H., Eggleston, K. N., Zhong, J., Hu, R., Wang, C., Xie, K., … Yu, M. (2019). Direct medical cost of diabetes in rural China using electronic insurance claims data and diabetes management data. Journal of Diabetes Investigation, 10(2), 531–538. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.12897

  • Wu, D., Guo, M., & Xu, C. (2021). The development of continuing medical education in China. Creative Education, 12(01), 203–211. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2021.121015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, H., Liu, L., & Ya, C. (2020). Thoughts of online techning for higher education in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. China University Teaching, 5, 57–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xing, C., & Zhang, R. (2021). COVID-19 in China: Responses, challenges and implications for the health system. Healthcare (Basel), 9(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9010082

  • Xu, H., Song, K., Qin, L., Qu, Y., Niu, Q., Li, B., & Han, Z. (2021a). Knowledge of Chinese dentists on HPV, their willingness and barriers to recommend HPV vaccination to patients. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 17(8), 2728–2735. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2021.1885967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, J., Shi, Y., Cheng, F., & Liang, W. (2021b). China’s public health system: Time for improvement. The Lancet Public Health, 6(12), e869–e870. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2468-2667(21)00250-4

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yao, H., Wang, P., Tang, Y.-L., Liu, Y., Liu, T., Liu, H., … Zhu, J. (2021). Burnout and job satisfaction of psychiatrists in China: A nationwide survey. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ya-Wen, C. (2020). Research progress of Chinese public health system reform under COVID-19, 377–381. https://doi.org/10.1109/icphds51617.2020.00081

  • Yin, J.-H., Lengeler, C., Tanner, M., & Zhou, X.-N. (2022). A malaria-free China: Global importance and key experience. Advances in Parasitology, 116, xv–xix. Elsevier.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, L., Huang, L., Tang, H.-R., Li, N., Rao, T.-T., Hu, D., … Shi, L.-X. (2021). Analysis of factors influencing the network teaching effect of college students in a medical school during the COVID-19 epidemic. BMC Medical Education, 21(1), 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, N., Dong, Y., & De Jong, M. (2022). A helping hand from the government? How public research funding affects academic output in less-prestigious universities in China. Research Policy, 51(10), 104591.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeng, W., Li, G., Turbat, V., Hu, G., Ahn, H., & Shen, J. (2021). Optimizing preventive medicine to bridge the gap between clinical medicine and public health for disease control in China: a lesson from COVID-19. Preventive Medicine, 143, 106324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhai, J., Dai, L., Peng, C., Dong, B., Jia, Y., & Yang, C. (2022). Application of the presentation–assimilation–discussion class in oral pathology teaching. Journal of Dental Education, 86(1), 4–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, C., & Xiao, C. (2022). China’s infrastructure diplomacy in the Mediterranean region under the belt and road initiative: Challenges ahead? Mediterranean Politics, 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, L., Wang, R., Xin, J., Chen, Q., Li, C., Holsinger, J. W., & Ma, X. (2017). Analysis of the preventive medicine undergraduate curriculum in China: The West China School of public heath experience: A case study. Frontiers in Education, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2017.00028

  • Zhou, X.-N. (2021). China declared malaria-free: A milestone in the world malaria eradication and Chinese public health. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 10, 1–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, E., Fors, U., & Smedberg, Å. (2018). Exploring the needs and possibilities of physicians’ continuing professional development-an explorative qualitative study in a Chinese primary care context. PLoS One, 13(8), e0202635.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shahid Shah .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Shah, S. et al. (2024). Public Health Education, Practice, and Research in China. In: Al-Worafi, Y.M. (eds) Handbook of Medical and Health Sciences in Developing Countries. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74786-2_543-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74786-2_543-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-74786-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-74786-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics