Abstract
This chapter characterizes disasters and discusses the psychological and behavioral responses to disasters. Interventions for best practices to mitigate the psychological consequences of disasters are described. Mental health response must be based on an action plan that effectively utilizes available resources (material, financial, and personnel) and balances individual and community-based approaches for the identification of and intervention with at-risk groups. A public health approach addresses both individual and population care needs and stresses preparation as much as an effective response. This perspective focuses on promoting and maintaining resilience, interventions for those most severely affected, and guidance and assistance for all who experience distress while facilitating effective community leadership.
This chapter is an update from the 4th edition. Previous edition authors were James C. West, David M. Benedek, Derrick A. Hamaoka, Robert J. Ursano.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Adams, R. E., & Boscarino, J. A. (2006). Predictors of PTSD and delayed PTSD after disaster: The impact of exposure and psychosocial resources. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194(7), 485–493. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000228503.95503.e9
Adler, A. B., Litz, B. T., Castro, C. A., Suvak, M., Thomas, J. L., Burrell, L., et al. (2008). A group randomized trial of critical incident stress debriefing provided to U.S. peacekeepers. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(3), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20342
Alexander, A. C., Ward, K. D., Forde, D. R., & Stockton, M. (2019). Are posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms pathways to smoking relapse after a natural disaster? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 195, 178–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.025
Allen, B., Brymer, M. J., Steinberg, A. M., Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A., Speier, A. H., et al. (2010). Perceptions of psychological first aid among providers responding to hurricanes Gustav and Ike. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(4), 509–513. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20539
Alper, H. E., Gargano, L. M., Cone, J. E., & Brackbill, R. M. (2020). Injury severity and psychological distress sustained in the aftermath of the attacks of 11 September 2001 predict somatic symptoms in world trade Center health registry enrollees sixteen years later. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124232
Bell, S. A., & Folkerth, L. A. (2016). Women’s mental health and intimate partner violence following natural disaster: A scoping review. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 31(6), 648–657. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x16000911
Benedek, D. M., Holloway, H. C., & Becker, S. M. (2002). Emergency mental health management in bioterrorism events. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America, 20(2), 393–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0733-8627(01)00007-4
Boscarino, J. A., Adams, R. E., & Figley, C. R. (2006). Worker productivity and outpatient service use after the September 11th attacks: Results from the New York City terrorism outcome study. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 49(8), 670–682. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20340
Bromet, E. J. (2012). Mental health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. Journal of Radiological Protection, 32(1), N71–N75. https://doi.org/10.1088/0952-4746/32/1/n71
Brooks, S. K., Dunn, R., Amlôt, R., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2016). Social and occupational factors associated with psychological distress and disorder among disaster responders: A systematic review. BMC Psychology, 4, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-016-0120-9
Brumfiel, G. (2013). Fukushima: Fallout of fear. Nature, 493(7432), 290–293. https://doi.org/10.1038/493290a
Bryant, R. A., O’Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., McFarlane, A. C., Clark, C. R., & Silove, D. (2010). The psychiatric sequelae of traumatic injury. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(3), 312–320. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09050617
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., et al. (2006). Psychlogical first aid: Field operations guide (2nd edn.). https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources//pfa_field_operations_guide.pdf. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
CDC. (2020). Crisis & Emergency Risk Communication (CERC). https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/index.asp. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
CDC. (2021). CDC prepare your health. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
Chen, S., Westman, M., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2015). The commerce and crossover of resources: Resource conservation in the service of resilience. Stress and Health, 31(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2574
Clemens, S. L., Berry, H. L., McDermott, B. M., & Harper, C. M. (2013). Summer of sorrow: Measuring exposure to and impacts of trauma after Queensland’s natural disasters of 2010–2011. Medical Journal of Australia, 199(8), 552–555. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja13.10307
Comer, J. S., Bry, L. J., Poznanski, B., & Golik, A. M. (2016). Children’s mental health in the context of terrorist attacks, ongoing threats, and possibilities of future terrorism. [review]. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(9), 79–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0722-1
CRED. (2020a). CRED crunch: Technological disasters. Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED).
CRED. (2020b). Natural disasters 2019: Now is not the time to give up. https://cred.be/sites/default/files/adsr_2019.pdf. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
CSTS. (2019). Family planning for disasters: How to plan for and protect your family’s health. https://www.cstsonline.org/assets/media/documents/CSTS_CTC_Family_Planning_for_Disasters.pdf. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
Czeisler, M., Lane, R. I., Wiley, J. F., Czeisler, C. A., Howard, M. E., & Rajaratnam, S. M. W. (2021). Follow-up survey of US adult reports of mental health, substance use, and suicidal ideation during the COVID-19 pandemic, September 2020. JAMA Network Open, 4(2), e2037665. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.37665
FBI. (2020). Quick look: 277 active shooter incidents in the United States from 2000 to 2018. https://www.fbi.gov/about/partnerships/office-of-partner-engagement/active-shooter-incidents-graphics. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
Feder, A., Fred-Torres, S., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2019). The biology of human resilience: Opportunities for enhancing resilience across the life span. Biological Psychiatry, 86(6), 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.07.012
Fisher, S. (2010). Violence against women and natural disasters: Findings from post-tsunami Sri Lanka. Violence Against Women, 16(8), 902–918. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210377649
Forbes, D., Lewis, V., Varker, T., Phelps, A., O’Donnell, M., Wade, D. J., et al. (2011). Psychological first aid following trauma: Implementation and evaluation framework for high-risk organizations. Psychiatry, 74(3), 224–239. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2011.74.3.224
Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., & Wang, L. (2004). Acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in disaster or rescue workers. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(8), 1370–1376. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1370
Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., Liu, X., McKibben, J. B., Wang, L., & Reissman, D. B. (2015). Depressive symptom severity and community collective efficacy following the 2004 Florida hurricanes. PLoS One, 10(6), e0130863. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130863
Fullilove, M. T. (1996). Psychiatric implications of displacement: Contributions from the psychology of place. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(12), 1516–1523. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.12.1516
Gabarron, E., Oyeyemi, S. O., & Wynn, R. (2021). COVID-19-related misinformation on social media: A systematic review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 99(6), 455–463A. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.20.276782
Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., et al. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. The New England Journal of Medicine, 346(13), 982–987. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa013404
Galea, S., Brewin, C. R., Gruber, M., Jones, R. T., King, D. W., King, L. A., et al. (2007). Exposure to hurricane-related stressors and mental illness after hurricane Katrina. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(12), 1427–1434. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1427
Garrey, S. K., Welch, A. E., Jacobson, M. H., Brackbill, R. M., & Gargano, L. M. (2020). The intentional self-medication of 9/11-related PTSD symptoms with alcohol: 15 years after the disaster. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155327
Gibson, R., Whealin, J. M., Dasaro, C. R., Udasin, I. G., Crane, M., Moline, J. M., Harrison, D. J., Luft, B. J., Todd, A. C., Schechter, C., Lowe, S. M., Feder, A., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2022). Prevalence and correlates of suicidal ideation in World Trade Center responders: Results from a population-based health monitoring cohort. Journal of Affective Disorders, 306, 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.011
Goldmann, E., & Galea, S. (2014). Mental health consequences of disasters. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182435
Greene, C. M., & Murphy, G. (2021). Quantifying the effects of fake news on behavior: Evidence from a study of COVID-19 misinformation. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied, 27(4), 773–784. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000371
Harville, E. W., Taylor, C. A., Tesfai, H., Xu, X., & Buekens, P. (2011). Experience of hurricane Katrina and reported intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(4), 833–845. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510365861
Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., et al. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 70(4), 283–315.; ; discussion 316-269,. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2007.70.4.283
Holloway, H. C., Norwood, A. E., Fullerton, C. S., Engel, C. C., Jr., & Ursano, R. J. (1997). The threat of biological weapons. Prophylaxis and mitigation of psychological and social consequences. JAMA, 278(5), 425–427. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550050087038
Horney, J. A., Karaye, I. M., Abuabara, A., Gearhart, S., Grabich, S., & Perez-Patron, M. (2020). The impact of natural disasters on suicide in the United States, 2003-2015. Crisis, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000723
Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., Lucas, C. P., Wu, P., Mandell, D. J., Goodwin, R. D., et al. (2005). Psychopathology among New York city public school children 6 months after September 11. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(5), 545–552. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.5.545
IFRC. (2022). What is a disaster? https://www.ifrc.org/what-disaster. Accessed 4 July 2022.
IOM. (2003). Preparing for the psychological consequences of terrorism: A public health strategy. Institute of Medicine.
IOM. (2015). Healthy, resilient, and sustainable communities after disasters: Strategies, opportunities, and planning for recovery. Institute of Medicine.
James, L. E., Welton-Mitchell, C., Noel, J. R., & James, A. S. (2020). Integrating mental health and disaster preparedness in intervention: A randomized controlled trial with earthquake and flood-affected communities in Haiti. Psychological Medicine, 50(2), 342–352. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291719000163
Jin, Y., Deng, H., An, J., & Xu, J. (2019). The prevalence of PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms and related predictors in children and adolescents 3 years after the Ya’an earthquake. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 50(2), 300–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0840-6
Jing, G. P., & Katz, C. L. (2021). An update on psychotic spectrum disorders and disasters. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 34(3), 211–215. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000700
Kessler, R. C., Galea, S., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Ursano, R. J., & Wessely, S. (2008). Trends in mental illness and suicidality after hurricane Katrina. Molecular Psychiatry, 13(4), 374–384. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4002119
Kessler, R. C., Rose, S., Koenen, K. C., Karam, E. G., Stang, P. E., Stein, D. J., et al. (2014). How well can post-traumatic stress disorder be predicted from pre-trauma risk factors? An exploratory study in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. World Psychiatry, 13(3), 265–274. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20150
Kolves, K., Kolves, K. E., & De Leo, D. (2013). Natural disasters and suicidal behaviours: A systematic literature review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 146(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.07.037
Lai, B. S., La Greca, A. M., Auslander, B. A., & Short, M. B. (2013). Children’s symptoms of posttraumatic stress and depression after a natural disaster: Comorbidity and risk factors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 146(1), 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.08.041
Lai, J., Ma, S., Wang, Y., Cai, Z., Hu, J., Wei, N., et al. (2020). Factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to coronavirus disease 2019. JAMA Network Open, 3(3), e203976. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3976
Le, F., Tracy, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2013). Displacement, county social cohesion, and depression after a large-scale traumatic event. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(11), 1729–1741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-013-0698-7
Leitch, L., & Miller-Karas, E. (2009). A case for using biologically-based mental health intervention in post-earthquake China: Evaluation of training in the trauma resiliency model. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 11(4), 221–233.
Lima, B. R., Chavez, H., Samaniego, N., Pompei, M. S., Pai, S., Santacruz, H., et al. (1989). Disaster severity and emotional disturbance: Implications for primary mental health care in developing countries. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 79(1), 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1989.tb09236.x
Lowe, S. R., McGrath, J. A., Young, M. N., Kwok, R. K., Engel, L. S., Galea, S., et al. (2019). Cumulative disaster exposure and mental and physical health symptoms among a large sample of Gulf Coast residents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(2), 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22392
Maes, M., Mylle, J., Delmeire, L., & Janca, A. (2001). Pre- and post-disaster negative life events in relation to the incidence and severity of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 105(1–2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-1781(01)00325-0
Mash, H. B. H., Fullerton, C. S., & Ursano, R. J. (2018). Post-traumatic stress symptoms following sniper attacks: Effects of television viewing and identification with victims. American Journal of Disaster Medicine, 13(1), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.5055/ajdm.2018.0285
Matsuoka, Y., Nishi, D., Nakaya, N., Sone, T., Noguchi, H., Hamazaki, K., et al. (2012). Concern over radiation exposure and psychological distress among rescue workers following the Great East Japan Earthquake. BMC Public Health, 12, 249. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-249
McCarroll, J. E., Ursano, R. J., Fullerton, C. S., Liu, X., & Lundy, A. (2001). Effects of exposure to death in a war mortuary on posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms of intrusion and avoidance. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189(1), 44–48. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200101000-00008
Miguel-Tobal, J. J., Cano-Vindel, A., Gonzalez-Ordi, H., Iruarrizaga, I., Rudenstine, S., Vlahov, D., et al. (2006). PTSD and depression after the Madrid March 11 train bombings. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(1), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20091
Morganstein, J. C., Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., Donato, D., & Holloway, H. C. (2017). Pandemics: Health care emergencies. In R. J. Ursano, C. S. Fullerton, L. Weisaeth, & B. Raphael (Eds.), Textbook of disaster psychiatry (pp. 270–284). Cambridge University Press.
NCTSN. (2012). PFA mobile. https://www.nctsn.org/resources/pfa-mobile. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
Neria, Y., Nandi, A., & Galea, S. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder following disasters: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 38(4), 467–480. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291707001353
Neria, Y., Wickramaratne, P., Olfson, M., Gameroff, M. J., Pilowsky, D. J., Lantigua, R., et al. (2013). Mental and physical health consequences of the September 11, 2001 (9/11) attacks in primary care: A longitudinal study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21767
Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., & Watson, P. J. (2002a). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part II. Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry, 65(3), 240–260. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.65.3.240.20169
Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002b). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry, 65(3), 207–239. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.65.3.207.20173
North, C. S., & Cloninger, C. R. (2012). Personality and major depression among directly exposed survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Depression Research and Treatment, 2012, 204741. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/204741
North, C. S., Tivis, L., McMillen, J. C., Pfefferbaum, B., Spitznagel, E. L., Cox, J., et al. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in rescue workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(5), 857–859. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.857
North, C. S., Abbacchi, A., & Cloninger, C. R. (2012a). Personality and posttraumatic stress disorder among directly exposed survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.02.005
North, C. S., Oliver, J., & Pandya, A. (2012b). Examining a comprehensive model of disaster-related posttraumatic stress disorder in systematically studied survivors of 10 disasters. American Journal of Public Health, 102(10), e40–e48. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2012.300689
North, C. S., Adinoff, B., Pollio, D. E., Kinge, S., Downs, D. L., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2013). Alcohol use disorders and drinking among survivors of the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City. Comprehensive Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.03.027
Norwood, A. E., Ursano, R. J., & Fullerton, C. S. (2000). Disaster psychiatry: Principles and practice. The Psychiatric Quarterly, 71(3), 207–226. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1004678010161
Orui, M. (2020). Re-increased male suicide rates in the recovery phase following the Great East Japan Earthquake. Crisis, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000656
Orui, M., Suzuki, Y., Maeda, M., & Yasumura, S. (2018). Suicide rates in evacuation areas after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Crisis, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000509
Pandya, A., Katz, C. L., Smith, R., Ng, A. T., Tafoya, M., Holmes, A., et al. (2010). Services provided by volunteer psychiatrists after 9/11 at the New York City family assistance center: September 12-November 20, 2001. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 16(3), 193–199. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.pra.0000375717.77831.83
Paxson, C., Fussell, E., Rhodes, J., & Waters, M. (2012). Five years later: Recovery from post traumatic stress and psychological distress among low-income mothers affected by hurricane Katrina. Social Science & Medicine, 74(2), 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.10.004
Person, C., Tracy, M., & Galea, S. (2006). Risk factors for depression after a disaster. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194(9), 659–666. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000235758.24586.b7
Pfefferbaum, B., Shaw, J. A., & Cqi. (2013). Practice parameter on disaster preparedness. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(11), 1224–1238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.08.014
Pietrzak, R. H., Tracy, M., Galea, S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K. J., Hamblen, J. L., et al. (2012). Resilience in the face of disaster: Prevalence and longitudinal course of mental disorders following hurricane Ike. PLoS One, 7(6), e38964. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038964
Rahman, A., Shaw, R., Surjan, A., & Parvin, G. A. (2016). Urban disasters and approaches to resilience. In Atta-Ur-Rahman, R. Shaw, A. Surjan, & G. A. Parvin (Eds.), Urban disasters and resilience in Asia (pp. 1–19). Butterworth-Heinemann.
Raphael, B. (1986). The nature of disaster. In When disaster strikes: How individuals and communities cope with catastrophe (pp. 6–9). Basic Books.
Red Cross Global Disaster Preparedness Center. (2021). https://preparecenter.org/. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
Reifels, L., Spittal, M. J., Duckers, M. L. A., Mills, K., & Pirkis, J. (2018). Suicidality risk and (repeat) disaster exposure: Findings from a nationally representative population survey. Psychiatry, 81(2), 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.2017.1385049
Rodriguez, J. J., & Kohn, R. (2008). Use of mental health services among disaster survivors. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 21(4), 370–378. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e328304d984
Rose, S., Bisson, J., Churchill, R., & Wessely, S. (2002). Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, Cd000560. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.Cd000560
Rubin, G. J., Amlot, R., Wessely, S., & Greenberg, N. (2012). Anxiety, distress and anger among British nationals in Japan following the Fukushima nuclear accident. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 201(5), 400–407. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.111575
SAMHSA. (2020). Phases of disaster. https://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/recovering-disasters/phases-disaster. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
Sampson, R. J. (2003). The neighborhood context of well-being. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 46(3 Suppl), S53–S64. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2003.0059
Schlenger, W. E., Caddell, J. M., Ebert, L., Jordan, B. K., Rourke, K. M., Wilson, D., et al. (2002). Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: Findings from the National Study of Americans’ reactions to September 11. JAMA, 288(5), 581–588. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.5.581
Schumacher, J. A., Coffey, S. F., Norris, F. H., Tracy, M., Clements, K., & Galea, S. (2010). Intimate partner violence and hurricane Katrina: Predictors and associated mental health outcomes. Violence and Victims, 25(5), 588–603. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.5.588
Schwartz, R. M., Gillezeau, C. N., Liu, B., Lieberman-Cribbin, W., & Taioli, E. (2017). Longitudinal impact of hurricane Sandy exposure on mental health symptoms. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14090957
Schwartz, R. M., Rasul, R., Kerath, S. M., Watson, A. R., Lieberman-Cribbin, W., Liu, B., et al. (2018). Displacement during hurricane Sandy: The impact on mental health. Journal of Emergency Management, 16(1), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.2018.0350
Sharpe, I., & Davison, C. M. (2021). Climate change, climate-related disasters and mental disorder in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review. BMJ Open, 11(10), e051908. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051908
Shear, M. K., McLaughlin, K. A., Ghesquiere, A., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., & Kessler, R. C. (2011). Complicated grief associated with hurricane Katrina. Depression and Anxiety, 28(8), 648–657. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20865
Shear, M. K., Reynolds, C. F., 3rd, Simon, N. M., Zisook, S., Wang, Y., Mauro, C., et al. (2016). Optimizing treatment of complicated grief: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(7), 685–694. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0892
Sveen, J., Bergh Johannesson, K., Cernvall, M., & Arnberg, F. K. (2018). Trajectories of prolonged grief one to six years after a natural disaster. PLoS One, 13(12), e0209757. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209757
Swedo, E., Idaikkadar, N., Leemis, R., Dias, T., Radhakrishnan, L., Stein, Z., et al. (2020). Trends in U.S. emergency department visits related to suspected or confirmed child abuse and neglect among children and adolescents aged <18 years before and during the COVID-19 pandemic – United States, January 2019-September 2020. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(49), 1841–1847. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6949a1
Thienkrua, W., Cardozo, B. L., Chakkraband, M. L., Guadamuz, T. E., Pengjuntr, W., Tantipiwatanaskul, P., et al. (2006). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among children in tsunami-affected areas in southern Thailand. JAMA, 296(5), 549–559. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.5.549
Ursano, R. J., McCarroll, J. E., & Fullerton, C. S. (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder and identification in disaster workers. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(3), 353–359. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.3.353
Ursano, R. J., McCarroll, J. E., & Fullerton, C. S. (2003a). Traumatic death in terrorism and disasters: The effects on posttraumatic stress and behavior. In R. J. Ursano, C. S. Fullerton, & A. E. Norwood (Eds.), Terrorism and disaster: Individual and community mental health interventions (pp. 308–332). Cambridge University Press.
Ursano, R. J., Norwood, A. E., Fullerton, C. S., Holloway, H. C., & Hall, M. (2003b). Terrorism with weapons of mass destruction: Chemical, biological, nuclear, radiological, and explosive agents. In R. J. Ursano & A. E. Norwood (Eds.), Trauma and disaster: Responses and management (Vol. 22, pp. 125–154). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
US Department of Homeland Security Ready.Gov. (2021). https://www.ready.gov/. Accessed 28 Feb 2021.
Van der Velden, P. G., & Kleber, R. J. (2009). Substance use and misuse after disaster. In Y. Neria, S. Galea, & F. H. Norris (Eds.), Mental health and disasters (pp. 94–115). Cambridge University Press.
Vigo, D., Thornicroft, G., & Gureje, O. (2020). The differential outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 in low- and middle-income countries vs high-income countries. JAMA Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.2174
Viswanath, B., Maroky, A. S., Math, S. B., John, J. P., Cherian, A. V., Girimaji, S. C., et al. (2013). Gender differences in the psychological impact of tsunami. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 59(2), 130–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764011423469
Wahlström, L., Michélsen, H., Schulman, A., Backheden, M., & Keskinen-Rosenqvist, R. (2013). Longitudinal course of physical and psychological symptoms after a natural disaster. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.21892
Weisaeth, L., & Heir, T. (2017). Workplace and organizational disasters. In R. J. Ursano, C. S. Fullerton, L. Weisaeth, & B. Raphael (Eds.), Textbook of disaster psychiatry (2nd ed., pp. 261–269). Cambridge University Press.
Wexler, B., & Smith, M. E. (2015). Disaster response and people experiencing homelessness: Addressing challenges of a population with limited resources. Journal of Emergency Management, 13(3), 195–200. https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.2015.0233
Whaley, G. J. L., Cohen, W. L., & Cozza, S. J. (2017). Children and families responding to disaster and bereavement. In R. J. Ursano, C. S. Fullerton, L. Weisaeth, & B. Raphael (Eds.), Textbook of disaster psychiatry (2nd ed., pp. 213–230). Cambridge University Press.
WHO. (2011). Psychological first aid: Guide for field workers. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241548205. Accessed 5 July 2022.
Zatzick, D. F., Rivara, F. P., Nathens, A. B., Jurkovich, G. J., Wang, J., Fan, M. Y., et al. (2007). A nationwide US study of post-traumatic stress after hospitalization for physical injury. Psychological Medicine, 37(10), 1469–1480. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291707000943
Zatzick, D. F., Rowhani-Rahbar, A., Wang, J., Russo, J., Darnell, D., Ingraham, L., et al. (2017). The cumulative burden of mental, substance use, and general medical disorders and rehospitalization and mortality after an injury. Psychiatric Services, 68(6), 596–602. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201600311
Zhang, G., North, C. S., Narayanan, P., Kim, Y. S., Thielman, S., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2013). The course of postdisaster psychiatric disorders in directly exposed civilians after the US embassy bombing in Nairobi, Kenya: A follow-up study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(2), 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0535-4
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the U.S.; foreign copyright protection may apply
About this entry
Cite this entry
West, J.C., Morganstein, J.C., Benedek, D.M., Ursano, R.J. (2023). Managing Psychological Consequences in Disaster Populations. In: Tasman, A., et al. Tasman’s Psychiatry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_126-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_126-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-42825-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-42825-9
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine