Skip to main content

Role of ERCP in Older Adults

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Geriatric Gastroenterology

Abstract

With increasing age, the incidence of pancreatic and biliary diseases rises. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is a commonly performed endoscopic procedure in older adults to diagnose and treat pancreaticobiliary disorders. However, older patients are usually associated with multiple comorbid conditions and, thus, may be more susceptible to complications during the endoscopic interventions. Additionally, complications in older patients can be more severe compared to younger individuals because of the decreased physiological reserve, presence of concomitant systemic diseases, and possible serious drug interactions. Therefore, the endoscopist should be aware of the risks and needs to pay special attention to the risk versus benefits before considering the endoscopic interventions in geriatric patients. This chapter will focus on the yield, safety, and indications of ERCP in older adults.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Albores-Saavedra J, Schwartz AM, Batich K, et al. Cancers of the ampulla of Vater: demographics, morphology, and survival based on 5,625 cases from the SEER program. J Surg Oncol. 2009;100:598–605.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ali M, Ward G, Staley D, et al. A retrospective study of the safety and efficacy of ERCP in octogenarians. Dig Dis Sci. 2011;56:586–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Cancer Society. Cancer facts and figures. 2012. https://www.cancer.org/research/cancer-facts-statistics.html

  • Andriulli A, Loperfido S, Napolitano G, et al. Incidence rates of post-ERCP complications: a systematic survey of prospective studies. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007; 102:1781–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Maple JT, Ben-Menachem T, et al. The role of endoscopy in the evaluation of suspected choledocholithiasis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2010;71:1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Chandrasekhara V, Early DS, et al. Modifications in endoscopic practice for the elderly. Gastrointest Endosc. 2013;78:1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Khashab MA, Chithadi KV, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for GI endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc. 2015;81:81–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Acosta RD, Abraham NS, et al. The management of antithrombotic agents for patients undergoing GI endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc. 2016;83:3–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Chandrasekhara V, Khashab MA, et al. Adverse events associated with ERCP. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017; 85:32–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Buxbaum JL, Abbas Fehmi SM, et al. ASGE guideline on the role of endoscopy in the evaluation and management of choledocholithiasis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2019;89: 1075–105.e15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton CE, McNabb WR, Wilkinson ML, et al. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in elderly patients. Age Ageing. 1998;27:683–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bachar GN, Cohen M, Belenky A, et al. Effect of aging on the adult extrahepatic bile duct: a sonographic study. J Ultrasound Med. 2003;22:879–82; quiz 883–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron TH, Fleischer DE. Past, present, and future of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: perspectives on the National Institutes of Health consensus conference. Mayo Clin Proc. 2002;77:407–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Behlul B, Ayfer S, Sezgin V, et al. Safety of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients 80 years of age and older. Prz Gastroenterol. 2014; 9:227–31.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bergquist A, von Seth E. Epidemiology of cholangiocarcinoma. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2015;29:221–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boss GR, Seegmiller JE. Age-related physiological changes and their clinical significance. West J Med. 1981;135:434–40.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cariani G, Di Marco M, Roda E, et al. Efficacy and safety of ERCP in patients 90 years of age and older. Gastrointest Endosc. 2006;64:471–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chan FKL, Goh KL, Reddy N, et al. Management of patients on antithrombotic agents undergoing emergency and elective endoscopy: joint Asian Pacific Association of Gastroenterology (APAGE) and Asian Pacific Society for Digestive Endoscopy (APSDE) practice guidelines. Gut. 2018;67:405–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen YK, Pleskow DK. SpyGlass single-operator peroral cholangiopancreatoscopy system for the diagnosis and therapy of bile-duct disorders: a clinical feasibility study (with video). Gastrointest Endosc. 2007;65: 832–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chong VH, Yim HB, Lim CC. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the elderly: outcomes, safety and complications. Singapore Med J. 2005;46: 621–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke GA, Jacobson BC, Hammett RJ, et al. The indications, utilization and safety of gastrointestinal endoscopy in an extremely elderly patient cohort. Endoscopy. 2001;33:580–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen LB, Hightower CD, Wood DA, et al. Moderate level sedation during endoscopy: a prospective study using low-dose propofol, meperidine/fentanyl, and midazolam. Gastrointest Endosc. 2004;59:795–803.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cotton PB, Blumgart LH, Davies GT, et al. Cannulation of papilla of Vater via fiber-duodenoscope. Assessment of retrograde cholangiopancreatography in 60 patients. Lancet. 1972;1:53–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daradkeh S, Tarawneh E, Al-Hadidy A. Factors affecting common bile duct diameter. Hepatogastroenterology. 2005;52:1659–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day LW, Lin L, Somsouk M. Adverse events in older patients undergoing ERCP: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Endosc Int Open. 2014;2:E28–36.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • DiSario JA. Endoscopic balloon dilation of the sphincter of Oddi for stone extraction in the elderly: is the juice worth the squeeze? Gastrointest Endosc. 2008;68: 483–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dollhopf M, Larghi A, Will U, et al. EUS-guided gallbladder drainage in patients with acute cholecystitis and high surgical risk using an electrocautery-enhanced lumen-apposing metal stent device. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017;86:636–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dong SQ, Singh TP, Zhao Q, et al. Sphincterotomy plus balloon dilation versus sphincterotomy alone for choledocholithiasis: a meta-analysis. Endoscopy. 2019;51:763.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enns R, Eloubeidi MA, Mergener K, et al. ERCP-related perforations: risk factors and management. Endoscopy. 2002;34:293–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher L, Fisher A, Thomson A. Cardiopulmonary complications of ERCP in older patients. Gastrointest Endosc. 2006;63:948–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fleisher LA, Beckman JA, Brown KA, et al. ACCF/AHA focused update on perioperative beta blockade incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines on perioperative cardiovascular evaluation and care for noncardiac surgery: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines. Circulation. 2009; 120:e169–276.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman ML. Adverse outcomes of ERCP. Gastrointest Endosc. 2002a;56:S273–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman ML. Adverse outcomes of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Rev Gastroenterol Disord. 2002b;2:147–68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman ML, Nelson DB, Sherman S, et al. Complications of endoscopic biliary sphincterotomy. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:909–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fritz E, Kirchgatterer A, Hubner D, et al. ERCP is safe and effective in patients 80 years of age and older compared with younger patients. Gastrointest Endosc. 2006;64: 899–905.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garewal D, Powell S, Milan SJ, et al. Sedative techniques for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; CD007274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giampieri M. Communication and informed consent in elderly people. Minerva Anestesiol. 2012;78:236–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glenn F, Hays DM. The age factor in the mortality rate of patients undergoing surgery of the biliary tract. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1955;100:11–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Go AS, Hylek EM, Phillips KA, et al. Prevalence of diagnosed atrial fibrillation in adults: national implications for rhythm management and stroke prevention: the AnTicoagulation and Risk Factors in Atrial Fibrillation (ATRIA) Study. JAMA. 2001;285:2370–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman MT, Yamamoto J. Descriptive study of gallbladder, extrahepatic bile duct, and ampullary cancers in the United States, 1997–2002. Cancer Causes Control. 2007;18:415–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harness JK, Strodel WE, Talsma SE. Symptomatic biliary tract disease in the elderly patient. Am Surg. 1986; 52:442–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hastier P, Buckley MJ, Dumas R, et al. A study of the effect of age on pancreatic duct morphology. Gastrointest Endosc. 1998;48:53–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayee B, Dunn J, Loganayagam A, et al. Midazolam with meperidine or fentanyl for colonoscopy: results of a randomized trial. Gastrointest Endosc. 2009;69:681–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hosking MP, Warner MA, Lobdell CM, et al. Outcomes of surgery in patients 90 years of age and older. JAMA. 1989;261:1909–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hui CK, Liu CL, Lai KC, et al. Outcome of emergency ERCP for acute cholangitis in patients 90 years of age and older. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19:1153–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ito Y, Tsujino T, Togawa O, et al. Endoscopic papillary balloon dilation for the management of bile duct stones in patients 85 years of age and older. Gastrointest Endosc. 2008;68:477–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jee SL, Jarmin R, Lim KF, et al. Outcomes of early versus delayed cholecystectomy in patients with mild to moderate acute biliary pancreatitis: a randomized prospective study. Asian J Surg. 2018;41:47–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karsenti D, Coron E, Vanbiervliet G, et al. Complete endoscopic sphincterotomy with vs. without large-balloon dilation for the removal of large bile duct stones: randomized multicenter study. Endoscopy. 2017;49:968–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katsinelos P, Paroutoglou G, Kountouras J, et al. Efficacy and safety of therapeutic ERCP in patients 90 years of age and older. Gastrointest Endosc. 2006;63:417–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katsinelos P, Paroutoglou G, Chatzimavroudis G, et al. Endoscopic sphincterotomy for acute relapsing pancreatitis associated with periampullary diverticula: a long-term follow-up. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 2007;70:195–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katsinelos P, Kountouras J, Chatzimavroudis G, et al. Outpatient therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography is safe in patients aged 80 years and older. Endoscopy. 2011;43:128–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawai K, Akasaka Y, Murakami K, et al. Endoscopic sphincterotomy of the ampulla of Vater. Gastrointest Endosc. 1974;20:148–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koklu S, Parlak E, Yuksel O, et al. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the elderly: a prospective and comparative study. Age Ageing. 2005;34:572–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koziel D, Gluszek-Osuch M, Suliga E, et al. Elderly persons with acute pancreatitis – specifics of the clinical course of the disease. Clin Interv Aging. 2019;14: 33–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laasch HU, Martin DF. Management of benign biliary strictures. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2002;25: 457–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lukens FJ, Howell DA, Upender S, et al. ERCP in the very elderly: outcomes among patients older than eighty. Dig Dis Sci. 2010;55:847–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luo H, Zhao L, Leung J, et al. Routine pre-procedural rectal indometacin versus selective post-procedural rectal indometacin to prevent pancreatitis in patients undergoing endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: a multicentre, single-blinded, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016;387:2293–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacMahon M, Walsh TN, Brennan P, et al. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the elderly: a single unit audit. Gerontology. 1993;39:28–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maitin-Casalis N, Neeman T, Thomson A. Protective effect of advanced age on post-ERCP pancreatitis and unplanned hospitalisation. Intern Med J. 2015;45: 1020–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Margiotta SJ Jr, Willis IH, Wallack MK. Cholecystectomy in the elderly. Am Surg. 1988;54:34–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masci E, Toti G, Mariani A, et al. Complications of diagnostic and therapeutic ERCP: a prospective multicenter study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96:417–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCune WS, Shorb PE, Moscovitz H. Endoscopic cannulation of the ampulla of Vater: a preliminary report. Ann Surg. 1968;167:752–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell RM, O’Connor F, Dickey W. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography is safe and effective in patients 90 years of age and older. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2003;36:72–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moon JH, Ko BM, Choi HJ, et al. Direct peroral cholangioscopy using an ultra-slim upper endoscope for the treatment of retained bile duct stones. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104:2729–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muravchick S. The elderly outpatient: current anesthetic implications. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2002;15:621–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naess IA, Christiansen SC, Romundstad P, et al. Incidence and mortality of venous thrombosis: a population-based study. J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5:692–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nassar Y, Richter S. Management of complicated gallstones in the elderly: comparing surgical and non-surgical treatment options. Gastroenterol Rep (Oxf). 2019;7:205–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Navaneethan U, Njei B, Lourdusamy V, et al. Comparative effectiveness of biliary brush cytology and intraductal biopsy for detection of malignant biliary strictures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2015;81:168–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nojkov B, Cappell MS. Safety and efficacy of ERCP after recent myocardial infarction or unstable angina. Gastrointest Endosc. 2010;72:870–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell JB, Maggard MA, Manunga J Jr, et al. Survival after resection of ampullary carcinoma: a national population-based study. Ann Surg Oncol. 2008;15: 1820–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oi I. Fiberduodenoscopy and endoscopic pancreatocholangiography. Gastrointest Endosc. 1970;17:59–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parekh PJ, Buerlein RC, Shams R, et al. An update on the management of implanted cardiac devices during electrosurgical procedures. Gastrointest Endosc. 2013; 78:836–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patai A, Solymosi N, Mohacsi L, et al. Indomethacin and diclofenac in the prevention of post-ERCP pancreatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective controlled trials. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017;85: 1144–56.e1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patel K, Li F, Luthra A, et al. Acute biliary pancreatitis is associated with adverse outcomes in the elderly: a propensity score-matched analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2019;53:e291–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen BT, Hussain N, Marine JE, et al. Endoscopy in patients with implanted electronic devices. Gastrointest Endosc. 2007;65:561–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Platt TE, Smith K, Sinha S, et al. Laparoscopic common bile duct exploration; a preferential pathway for elderly patients. Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2018;30:13–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rahib L, Smith BD, Aizenberg R, et al. Projecting cancer incidence and deaths to 2030: the unexpected burden of thyroid, liver, and pancreas cancers in the United States. Cancer Res. 2014;74:2913–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riphaus A, Stergiou N, Wehrmann T. Sedation with propofol for routine ERCP in high-risk octogenarians: a randomized, controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:1957–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riphaus A, Stergiou N, Wehrmann T. ERCP in octogenerians: a safe and efficient investigation. Age Ageing. 2008;37:595–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Gonzalez FJ, Naranjo-Rodriguez A, Mata-Tapia I, et al. ERCP in patients 90 years of age and older. Gastrointest Endosc. 2003;58:220–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saluja SS, Sharma R, Pal S, et al. Differentiation between benign and malignant hilar obstructions using laboratory and radiological investigations: a prospective study. HPB (Oxford). 2007;9:373–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sawas T, Al Halabi S, Parsi MA, et al. Self-expandable metal stents versus plastic stents for malignant biliary obstruction: a meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2015;82:256–67.e7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sethi S, Sethi N, Wadhwa V, et al. A meta-analysis on the role of rectal diclofenac and indomethacin in the prevention of post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography pancreatitis. Pancreas. 2014;43:190–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel JH, Kasmin FE, Cohen SA. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography treatment of cholecystitis: possible? Yes; practical?? Diagn Ther Endosc. 1994; 1:51–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith AC, Dowsett JF, Russell RC, et al. Randomised trial of endoscopic stenting versus surgical bypass in malignant low bile duct obstruction. Lancet. 1994;344: 1655–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sugiyama M, Atomi Y. Endoscopic sphincterotomy for bile duct stones in patients 90 years of age and older. Gastrointest Endosc. 2000;52:187–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taunk P, Singh S, Lichtenstein D, et al. Improved classification of indeterminate biliary strictures by probe-based confocal laser endomicroscopy using the Paris criteria following biliary stenting. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;32:1778–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomopoulos KC, Vagenas K, Assimakopoulos SF, et al. Endoscopic retrogade cholangiopancreatography is safe and effective method for diagnosis and treatment of biliary and pancreatic disorders in octogenarians. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 2007;70:199–202.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tol JA, van Hooft JE, Timmer R, et al. Metal or plastic stents for preoperative biliary drainage in resectable pancreatic cancer. Gut. 2016;65:1981–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trust MD, Sheffield KM, Boyd CA, et al. Gallstone pancreatitis in older patients: are we operating enough? Surgery. 2011;150:515–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veitch AM, Vanbiervliet G, Gershlick AH, et al. Endoscopy in patients on antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy, including direct oral anticoagulants: British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) and European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) guidelines. Gut. 2016;65:374–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallner BK, Schumacher KA, Weidenmaier W, et al. Dilated biliary tract: evaluation with MR cholangiography with a T2-weighted contrast-enhanced fast sequence. Radiology. 1991;181:805–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wan J, Ren Y, Zhu Z, et al. How to select patients and timing for rectal indomethacin to prevent post-ERCP pancreatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Gastroenterol. 2017;17:43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang XM, Hu B. Endoscopic sphincterotomy plus large-balloon dilation vs endoscopic sphincterotomy for choledocholithiasis: a meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol. 2013;19:9453–60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yang C, Zhao Y, Li W, et al. Rectal nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs administration is effective for the prevention of post-ERCP pancreatitis: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pancreatology. 2017;17:681–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yasui T, Takahata S, Kono H, et al. Is cholecystectomy necessary after endoscopic treatment of bile duct stones in patients older than 80 years of age? J Gastroenterol. 2012;47:65–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yun DY, Han J, Oh JS, et al. Is endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography safe in patients 90 years of age and older? Gut Liver. 2014;8:552–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Arkady Broder .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Mohapatra, S., Broder, A. (2021). Role of ERCP in Older Adults. In: Pitchumoni, C.S., Dharmarajan, T. (eds) Geriatric Gastroenterology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30192-7_33

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30192-7_33

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-30191-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-30192-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics