Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Stem Cell Transplantation: Infection Risk by Transplant Type and Emerging Trends in Infection Management

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Emerging Transplant Infections

  • 1133 Accesses

Abstract

Advances in the field of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) provide the opportunity for cure of malignant and nonmalignant diseases. The kinetics of immune reconstitution posttransplant and the immunosuppressive therapies used place HSCT recipients at risk for bacterial, viral, fungal, and other opportunistic infections. Identification of new donor sources of hematopoietic cells has improved accessibility to transplant but may lead to significant deficits in short- and long-term immune reconstitution as well as an increased risk of graft-versus-host disease, which also impacts immune reconstitution. Additionally, new therapies used for the treatment of graft-versus-host disease have increased the risk for development of certain infections posttransplant. Understanding the many risk factors for infection in this patient population has allowed for improvement in infection identification and management, including development of new diagnostics and therapeutic modalities, which have decreased morbidity and mortality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 699.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 899.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Marr KA, Carter RA, Boeckh M, Martin P, Corey L. Invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epidemiology and risk factors. Blood. 2002;100(13): 4358–66. Epub 2002/10/24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Schuster MG, Cleveland AA, Dubberke ER, Kauffman CA, Avery RK, Husain S, et al. Infections in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: results from the organ transplant infection project, a multicenter, prospective, cohort study. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017;4(2):ofx050. Epub 2017/05/12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Ballen K, Woo Ahn K, Chen M, Abdel-Azim H, Ahmed I, Aljurf M, et al. Infection rates among acute leukemia patients receiving alternative donor hematopoietic cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2016;22(9):1636–45. Epub 2016/06/28.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Ogonek J, Kralj Juric M, Ghimire S, Varanasi PR, Holler E, Greinix H, et al. Immune reconstitution after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Front Immunol. 2016;7:507. Epub 2016/12/03.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Tomblyn M, Chiller T, Einsele H, Gress R, Sepkowitz K, Storek J, et al. Guidelines for preventing infectious complications among hematopoietic cell transplantation recipients: a global perspective. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2009;15(10):1143–238. Epub 2009/09/15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Chaudhry MS, Velardi E, Malard F, van den Brink MR. Immune reconstitution after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: time to T up the Thymus. J Immunol. 2017;198(1): 40–6. Epub 2016/12/21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Seggewiss R, Einsele H. Immune reconstitution after allogeneic transplantation and expanding options for immunomodulation: an update. Blood. 2010;115(19):3861–8. Epub 2010/03/11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Palmer DB. The effect of age on thymic function. Front Immunol. 2013;4:316. Epub 2013/10/11.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Toubert A, Glauzy S, Douay C, Clave E. Thymus and immune reconstitution after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in humans: never say never again. Tissue Antigens. 2012;79(2):83–9. Epub 2012/01/10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. van den Brink MR, Velardi E, Perales MA. Immune reconstitution following stem cell transplantation. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2015;2015:215–9. Epub 2015/12/08.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Ferrara JL, Levine JE, Reddy P, Holler E. Graft-versus-host disease. Lancet. 2009;373(9674): 1550–61. Epub 2009/03/14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Zeiser R, Blazar BR. Acute graft-versus-host disease – biologic process, prevention, and therapy. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(22):2167–79. Epub 2017/11/25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Cooke KR, Luznik L, Sarantopoulos S, Hakim FT, Jagasia M, Fowler DH, et al. The biology of chronic graft-versus-host disease: a task force report from the National Institutes of Health consensus development project on criteria for clinical trials in chronic graft-versus-host disease. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2017;23(2):211–34. Epub 2016/10/08.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Martin PJ, Rizzo JD, Wingard JR, Ballen K, Curtin PT, Cutler C, et al. First- and second-line systemic treatment of acute graft-versus-host disease: recommendations of the American Society of Blood and Marrow Transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2012;18(8):1150–63. Epub 2012/04/19.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. MacDonald KPA, Betts BC, Couriel D. Reprint of: emerging therapeutics for the control of chronic graft-versus-host disease. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2018;24(3S):S7–S14. Epub 2018/02/10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Jagasia M, Zeiser R, Arbushites M, Delaite P, Gadbaw B, Bubnoff NV. Ruxolitinib for the treatment of patients with steroid-refractory GVHD: an introduction to the REACH trials. Immunotherapy. 2018;10(5):391–402. Epub 2018/01/11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Miklos D, Cutler CS, Arora M, Waller EK, Jagasia M, Pusic I, et al. Ibrutinib for chronic graft-versus-host disease after failure of prior therapy. Blood. 2017;130(21):2243–50. Epub 2017/09/20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Laughlin MJ, Eapen M, Rubinstein P, Wagner JE, Zhang MJ, Champlin RE, et al. Outcomes after transplantation of cord blood or bone marrow from unrelated donors in adults with leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(22):2265–75. Epub 2004/11/27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Rocha V, Labopin M, Sanz G, Arcese W, Schwerdtfeger R, Bosi A, et al. Transplants of umbilical-cord blood or bone marrow from unrelated donors in adults with acute leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(22):2276–85. Epub 2004/11/27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Hamza NS, Lisgaris M, Yadavalli G, Nadeau L, Fox R, Fu P, et al. Kinetics of myeloid and lymphocyte recovery and infectious complications after unrelated umbilical cord blood versus HLA-matched unrelated donor allogeneic transplantation in adults. Br J Haematol. 2004;124(4):488–98. Epub 2004/02/27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Thomson BG, Robertson KA, Gowan D, Heilman D, Broxmeyer HE, Emanuel D, et al. Analysis of engraftment, graft-versus-host disease, and immune recovery following unrelated donor cord blood transplantation. Blood. 2000;96(8):2703–11. Epub 2000/10/07.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Klein AK, Patel DD, Gooding ME, Sempowski GD, Chen BJ, Liu C, et al. T-cell recovery in adults and children following umbilical cord blood transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2001;7(8):454–66. Epub 2001/09/25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Brown JA, Boussiotis VA. Umbilical cord blood transplantation: basic biology and clinical challenges to immune reconstitution. Clin Immunol. 2008;127(3):286–97. Epub 2008/04/09.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Godfrey WR, Spoden DJ, Ge YG, Baker SR, Liu B, Levine BL, et al. Cord blood CD4(+)CD25(+)-derived T regulatory cell lines express FoxP3 protein and manifest potent suppressor function. Blood. 2005;105(2):750–8. Epub 2004/09/18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Li L, Godfrey WR, Porter SB, Ge Y, June CH, Blazar BR, et al. CD4+CD25+ regulatory T-cell lines from human cord blood have functional and molecular properties of T-cell anergy. Blood. 2005;106(9):3068–73. Epub 2005/07/16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Ruggeri A, Peffault de Latour R, Carmagnat M, Clave E, Douay C, Larghero J, et al. Outcomes, infections, and immune reconstitution after double cord blood transplantation in patients with high-risk hematological diseases. Transpl Infect Dis. 2011;13(5):456–65. Epub 2011/04/07.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Chang YJ, Zhao XY, Huang XJ. Immune reconstitution after haploidentical hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2014;20(4):440–9. Epub 2013/12/10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Ciurea SO, Mulanovich V, Saliba RM, Bayraktar UD, Jiang Y, Bassett R, et al. Improved early outcomes using a T cell replete graft compared with T cell depleted haploidentical hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2012;18(12):1835–44. Epub 2012/07/17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Shabbir-Moosajee M, Lombardi L, Ciurea SO. An overview of conditioning regimens for haploidentical stem cell transplantation with post-transplantation cyclophosphamide. Am J Hematol. 2015;90(6):541–8. Epub 2015/03/03.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Crocchiolo R, Bramanti S, Vai A, Sarina B, Mineri R, Casari E, et al. Infections after T-replete haploidentical transplantation and high-dose cyclophosphamide as graft-versus-host disease prophylaxis. Transpl Infect Dis. 2015;17(2):242–9. Epub 2015/02/05.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Rashidi A, DiPersio JF, Westervelt P, Vij R, Schroeder MA, Cashen AF, et al. Comparison of outcomes after peripheral blood Haploidentical versus matched unrelated donor allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation in patients with acute myeloid leukemia: a retrospective single-center review. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2016;22(9):1696–701. Epub 2016/05/26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Reisner Y, Hagin D, Martelli MF. Haploidentical hematopoietic transplantation: current status and future perspectives. Blood. 2011;118(23):6006–17. Epub 2011/09/17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Ullmann AJ, Schmidt-Hieber M, Bertz H, Heinz WJ, Kiehl M, Kruger W, et al. Infectious diseases in allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: prevention and prophylaxis strategy guidelines 2016. Ann Hematol. 2016;95(9):1435–55. Epub 2016/06/25.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Cordonnier C, Einarsdottir S, Cesaro S, Di Blasi R, Mikulska M, Rieger C, et al. Vaccination of haemopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: guidelines of the 2017 European conference on infections in Leukaemia (ECIL 7). Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(6):e200–e12. Epub 2019/02/13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Girmenia C, Bertaina A, Piciocchi A, Perruccio K, Algarotti A, Busca A, et al. Incidence, risk factors and outcome of pre-engraftment gram-negative bacteremia after allogeneic and autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: an Italian prospective multicenter survey. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(11):1884–96. Epub 2017/10/12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Wingard JR, Hsu J, Hiemenz JW. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: an overview of infection risks and epidemiology. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2011;25(1):101–16. Epub 2011/01/18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Boersma RS, Jie KS, Verbon A, van Pampus EC, Schouten HC. Thrombotic and infectious complications of central venous catheters in patients with hematological malignancies. Ann oncol. 2008;19(3):433–42. Epub 2007/10/27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Chong Y, Yakushiji H, Ito Y, Kamimura T. Cefepime-resistant gram-negative bacteremia in febrile neutropenic patients with hematological malignancies. Int J Infect Dis. 2010;14(Suppl 3):e171–5. Epub 2010/05/18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Mikulska M, Del Bono V, Raiola AM, Bruno B, Gualandi F, Occhini D, et al. Blood stream infections in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: reemergence of gram-negative rods and increasing antibiotic resistance. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2009;15(1): 47–53. Epub 2009/01/13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Mikulska M, Viscoli C, Orasch C, Livermore DM, Averbuch D, Cordonnier C, et al. Aetiology and resistance in bacteraemias among adult and paediatric haematology and cancer patients. J Infect. 2014;68(4):321–31. Epub 2013/12/29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Taplitz RA, Kennedy EB, Bow EJ, Crews J, Gleason C, Hawley DK, et al. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for adult patients with Cancer-related immunosuppression: ASCO and IDSA clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(30):3043–54. Epub 2018/09/05.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Horton LE, Haste NM, Taplitz RA. Rethinking antimicrobial prophylaxis in the transplant patient in the world of emerging resistant organisms-where are we today? Curr Hematol Malig Rep. 2018;13(1):59–67. Epub 2018/01/28.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Tauro S, Dobie D, Richardson G, Hastings M, Mahendra P. Recurrent penicillin-resistant pneumococcal sepsis after matched unrelated donor (MUD) transplantation for refractory T cell lymphoma. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2000;26(9):1017–9. Epub 2000/12/02.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Freifeld AG, Bow EJ, Sepkowitz KA, Boeckh MJ, Ito JI, Mullen CA, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with cancer: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(4):e56–93. Epub 2011/01/25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Gaur AH, Flynn PM, Heine DJ, Giannini MA, Shenep JL, Hayden RT. Diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infections among pediatric oncology patients lacking a peripheral culture, using differential time to detection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24(5):445–9. Epub 2005/05/07.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Lee A, Mirrett S, Reller LB, Weinstein MP. Detection of bloodstream infections in adults: how many blood cultures are needed? J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(11):3546–8. Epub 2007/09/21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Buss BA, Baures TJ, Yoo M, Hanson KE, Alexander DP, Benefield RJ, et al. Impact of a multiplex PCR assay for bloodstream infections with and without antimicrobial stewardship intervention at a Cancer hospital. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5(10):ofy258. Epub 2018/11/06.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Timbrook TT, Morton JB, McConeghy KW, Caffrey AR, Mylonakis E, LaPlante KL. The effect of molecular rapid diagnostic testing on clinical outcomes in bloodstream infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(1):15–23. Epub 2016/11/03.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Azar MM, Gaston DC, Kotton CN, Malinis MF. Emerging microbiology diagnostics for transplant infections: on the cusp of a paradigm shift. Transplantation. 2020. Epub 2020/01/24.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Hindler JA, Wong-Beringer A, Charlton CL, Miller SA, Kelesidis T, Carvalho M, et al. In vitro activity of daptomycin in combination with beta-lactams, gentamicin, rifampin, and tigecycline against daptomycin-nonsusceptible enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59(7):4279–88. Epub 2015/05/13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Smith JR, Barber KE, Raut A, Aboutaleb M, Sakoulas G, Rybak MJ. Beta-lactam combinations with daptomycin provide synergy against vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70(6):1738–43. Epub 2015/02/04.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Harris PNA, Tambyah PA, Lye DC, Mo Y, Lee TH, Yilmaz M, et al. Effect of Piperacillin-Tazobactam vs. Meropenem on 30-day mortality for patients with E coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae bloodstream infection and ceftriaxone resistance: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2018;320(10):984–94. Epub 2018/09/13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Forslow U, Mattsson J, Ringden O, Klominek J, Remberger M. Decreasing mortality rate in early pneumonia following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Scand J Infect Dis. 2006;38(11–12):970–6. Epub 2006/12/07.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Gentile G, Micozzi A, Girmenia C, Iori AP, Donati PP, Capria S, et al. Pneumonia in allogenic and autologous bone marrow recipients. A retrospective study. Chest. 1993;104(2):371–5. Epub 1993/08/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Aguilar-Guisado M, Jimenez-Jambrina M, Espigado I, Rovira M, Martino R, Oriol A, et al. Pneumonia in allogeneic stem cell transplantation recipients: a multicenter prospective study. Clin Transpl. 2011;25(6):E629–38. Epub 2011/12/14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Chopra T, Chandrasekar P, Salimnia H, Heilbrun LK, Smith D, Alangaden GJ. Recent epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection during hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Transpl. 2011;25(1):E82–7. Epub 2010/10/27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Guddati AK, Kumar G, Ahmed S, Ali M, Kumar N, Hari P, et al. Incidence and outcomes of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Int J Hematol. 2014;99(6):758–65. Epub 2014/04/10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Zacharioudakis IM, Ziakas PD, Mylonakis E. Clostridium difficile infection in the hematopoietic unit: a meta-analysis of published studies. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2014;20(10):1650–4. Epub 2014/06/11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Kinnebrew MA, Lee YJ, Jenq RR, Lipuma L, Littmann ER, Gobourne A, et al. Early Clostridium difficile infection during allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. PLoS One. 2014;9(3):e90158. Epub 2014/03/26.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Lavallee C, Labbe AC, Talbot JD, Alonso CD, Marr KA, Cohen S, et al. Risk factors for the development of Clostridium difficile infection in adult allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: a single-center study in Quebec, Canada. Transpl Infect Dis. 2017;19(1). Epub 2016/12/13.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, Kelly CP. Asymptomatic carriage of Clostridium difficile and serum levels of IgG antibody against toxin A. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(6):390–7. Epub 2000/02/10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Leav BA, Blair B, Leney M, Knauber M, Reilly C, Lowy I, et al. Serum anti-toxin B antibody correlates with protection from recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Vaccine. 2010;28(4):965–9. Epub 2009/11/28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Alonso CD, Treadway SB, Hanna DB, Huff CA, Neofytos D, Carroll KC, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of Clostridium difficile infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(8):1053–63. Epub 2012/03/14.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Willems L, Porcher R, Lafaurie M, Casin I, Robin M, Xhaard A, et al. Clostridium difficile infection after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: incidence, risk factors, and outcome. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2012;18(8):1295–301. Epub 2012/03/06.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Weber D, Jenq RR, Peled JU, Taur Y, Hiergeist A, Koestler J, et al. Microbiota disruption induced by early use of broad-Spectrum antibiotics is an independent risk factor of outcome after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2017;23(5):845–52. Epub 2017/02/25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Erb S, Frei R, Stranden AM, Dangel M, Tschudin-Sutter S, Widmer AF. Low sensitivity of fecal toxin A/B enzyme immunoassay for diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection in immunocompromised patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21(11):998 e9–e15. Epub 2015/08/02.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Bakken JS, Carroll KC, Coffin SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults and children: 2017 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66(7):987–94. Epub 2018/03/22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM, Davis MB. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(3):302–7. Epub 2007/06/30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Parmar SR, Bhatt V, Yang J, Zhang Q, Schuster M. A retrospective review of metronidazole and vancomycin in the management of Clostridium difficile infection in patients with hematologic malignancies. J Oncol Pharm Pract. 2014;20(3):172–82. Epub 2013/06/28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Johnson S, Louie TJ, Gerding DN, Cornely OA, Chasan-Taber S, Fitts D, et al. Vancomycin, metronidazole, or tolevamer for Clostridium difficile infection: results from two multinational, randomized, controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(3):345–54. Epub 2014/05/07.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Stevens VW, Nelson RE, Schwab-Daugherty EM, Khader K, Jones MM, Brown KA, et al. Comparative effectiveness of Vancomycin and metronidazole for the prevention of recurrence and death in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(4):546–53. Epub 2017/02/07.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Cornely OA, Crook DW, Esposito R, Poirier A, Somero MS, Weiss K, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for infection with Clostridium difficile in Europe, Canada, and the USA: a double-blind, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12(4): 281–9. Epub 2012/02/11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, Weiss K, Lentnek A, Golan Y, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(5):422–31. Epub 2011/02/04.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Cornely OA, Miller MA, Fantin B, Mullane K, Kean Y, Gorbach S. Resolution of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with cancer treated with fidaxomicin or vancomycin. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(19):2493–9. Epub 2013/05/30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Alonso CD, Braun DA, Patel I, Akbari M, Oh DJ, Jun T, et al. A multicenter, retrospective, case-cohort study of the epidemiology and risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection among cord blood transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis. 2017;19(4). Epub 2017/05/26.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Tieu JD, Williams RJ 2nd, Skrepnek GH, Gentry CA. Clinical outcomes of fidaxomicin vs. oral vancomycin in recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2019;44(2):220–8. Epub 2018/10/24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Cornely OA, Watt M, McCrea C, Goldenberg SD, De Nigris E. Extended-pulsed fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection in patients aged >/=60 years (EXTEND): analysis of cost-effectiveness. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(9):2529–39. Epub 2018/05/26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. DeFilipp Z, Peled JU, Li S, Mahabamunuge J, Dagher Z, Slingerland AE, et al. Third-party fecal microbiota transplantation following Allo-HCT reconstitutes microbiome diversity. Blood advances. 2018;2(7):745–53. Epub 2018/03/30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. DeFilipp Z, Hohmann E, Jenq RR, Chen YB. Fecal microbiota transplantation: restoring the injured microbiome after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2019;25(1):e17–22. Epub 2018/11/09.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Gerding DN, Kelly CP, Rahav G, Lee C, Dubberke ER, Kumar PN, et al. Bezlotoxumab for prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in patients at increased risk for recurrence. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(5):649–56. Epub 2018/03/15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Mullane KM, Winston DJ, Nooka A, Morris MI, Stiff P, Dugan MJ, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of Fidaxomicin for prophylaxis of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68(2):196–203. Epub 2018/06/13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Van Hise NW, Bryant AM, Hennessey EK, Crannage AJ, Khoury JA, Manian FA. Efficacy of Oral Vancomycin in preventing recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in patients treated with systemic antimicrobial agents. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(5):651–3. Epub 2016/06/19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Caroff DA, Menchaca JT, Zhang Z, Rhee C, Calderwood MS, Kubiak DW, et al. Oral vancomycin prophylaxis during systemic antibiotic exposure to prevent Clostridioides difficile infection relapses. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2019;40(6):662–7. Epub 2019/04/30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Chan JD, Bryson-Cahn C, Jain R, Lynch JB, Liu C. Does oral vancomycin prophylaxis during systemic antibiotic exposure prevent Clostridioides difficile infection relapses? Still in search of an answer. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2019;40(9):1084–6. Epub 2019/07/11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Donnelly JP, Chen SC, Kauffman CA, Steinbach WJ, Baddley JW, Verweij PE, et al. Revision and update of the consensus definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer and the mycoses study group education and research consortium. Clin Infect Dis. 2019. Epub 2019/12/06.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Blijlevens NM, Donnelly JP, de Pauw BE. Impaired gut function as risk factor for invasive candidiasis in neutropenic patients. Br J Haematol. 2002;117(2):259–64. Epub 2002/04/26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Bow EJ. Considerations in the approach to invasive fungal infection in patients with haematological malignancies. Br J Haematol. 2008;140(2):133–52. Epub 2008/01/05.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Hachem R, Hanna H, Kontoyiannis D, Jiang Y, Raad I. The changing epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: Candida glabrata and Candida krusei as the leading causes of candidemia in hematologic malignancy. Cancer. 2008;112(11):2493–9. Epub 2008/04/17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Robenshtok E, Gafter-Gvili A, Goldberg E, Weinberger M, Yeshurun M, Leibovici L, et al. Antifungal prophylaxis in cancer patients after chemotherapy or hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(34):5471–89. Epub 2007/10/03.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Kontoyiannis DP, Marr KA, Park BJ, Alexander BD, Anaissie EJ, Walsh TJ, et al. Prospective surveillance for invasive fungal infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients, 2001–2006: overview of the transplant-associated infection surveillance network (TRANSNET) database. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(8):1091–100. Epub 2010/03/12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/candida-auris/tracking-c-auris.html

  92. Calvo B, Melo AS, Perozo-Mena A, Hernandez M, Francisco EC, Hagen F, et al. First report of Candida auris in America: clinical and microbiological aspects of 18 episodes of candidemia. J Infect. 2016;73(4):369–74. Epub 2016/07/28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Lee WG, Shin JH, Uh Y, Kang MG, Kim SH, Park KH, et al. First three reported cases of nosocomial fungemia caused by Candida auris. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49(9):3139–42. Epub 2011/07/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Rudramurthy SM, Chakrabarti A, Paul RA, Sood P, Kaur H, Capoor MR, et al. Candida auris candidaemia in Indian ICUs: analysis of risk factors. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017;72(6): 1794–801. Epub 2017/03/24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Vallabhaneni S, Kallen A, Tsay S, Chow N, Welsh R, Kerins J, et al. Investigation of the first seven reported cases of Candida auris, a globally emerging invasive, multidrug-resistant fungus – United States, May 2013-August 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(44):1234–7. Epub 2016/11/11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Cornely OA, Gachot B, Akan H, Bassetti M, Uzun O, Kibbler C, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of fungemia in a cancer Cohort of the Infectious Diseases Group (IDG) of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC 65031). Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61(3):324–31. Epub 2015/04/15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Kozel TR, Wickes B. Fungal diagnostics. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2014;4(4):a019299. Epub 2014/04/03.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Pappas PG. Invasive candidiasis in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(3):857–63. Epub 2006/03/01.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Stevens DA. Diagnosis of fungal infections: current status. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;49(Suppl 1):11–9. Epub 2002/01/22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Karageorgopoulos DE, Vouloumanou EK. Ntziora F, Michalopoulos A, Rafailidis PI, Falagas ME. Beta-D-glucan assay for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(6):750–70. Epub 2011/03/04.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Persat F, Ranque S, Derouin F, Michel-Nguyen A, Picot S, Sulahian A. Contribution of the (1→3)-beta-D-glucan assay for diagnosis of invasive fungal infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(3):1009–13. Epub 2007/12/28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Lamoth F, Cruciani M, Mengoli C, Castagnola E, Lortholary O, Richardson M, et al. Beta-Glucan antigenemia assay for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections in patients with hematological malignancies: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies from the third European conference on infections in leukemia (ECIL-3). Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(5): 633–43. Epub 2011/12/27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Koo S, Bryar JM, Page JH, Baden LR, Marty FM. Diagnostic performance of the (1→3)-beta-D-glucan assay for invasive fungal disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(11):1650–9. Epub 2009/10/30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Clancy CJ, Nguyen MH. T2 magnetic resonance for the diagnosis of bloodstream infections: charting a path forward. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(suppl_4):iv2–5. Epub 2018/04/03.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Munoz P, Vena A, Machado M, Gioia F, Martinez-Jimenez MC, Gomez E, et al. T2Candida MR as a predictor of outcome in patients with suspected invasive candidiasis starting empirical antifungal treatment: a prospective pilot study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(suppl_4):iv6–iv12. Epub 2018/04/03.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Munoz P, Vena A, Machado M, Martinez-Jimenez MC, Gioia F, Gomez E, et al. T2MR contributes to the very early diagnosis of complicated candidaemia. A prospective study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(suppl_4):iv13–iv9. Epub 2018/04/03.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Patch ME, Weisz E, Cubillos A, Estrada SJ, Pfaller MA. Impact of rapid, culture-independent diagnosis of candidaemia and invasive candidiasis in a community health system. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(suppl_4):iv27–30. Epub 2018/04/03.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Chowdhary A, Sharma C, Duggal S, Agarwal K, Prakash A, Singh PK, et al. New clonal strain of Candida auris, Delhi, India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19(10):1670–3. Epub 2013/09/21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  109. Jeffery-Smith A, Taori SK, Schelenz S, Jeffery K, Johnson EM, Borman A, et al. Candida auris: a review of the literature. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2018;31(1). Epub 2017/11/17.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Spivak ES, Hanson KE. Candida auris: an emerging fungal pathogen. J Clin Microbiol. 2018;56(2). Epub 2017/11/24.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Kordalewska M, Zhao Y, Lockhart SR, Chowdhary A, Berrio I, Perlin DS. Rapid and accurate molecular identification of the emerging multidrug-resistant pathogen Candida auris. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55(8):2445–52. Epub 2017/05/26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  112. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, Clancy CJ, Marr KA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62(4):e1–50. Epub 2015/12/19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Biagi MJ, Wiederhold NP, Gibas C, Wickes BL, Lozano V, Bleasdale SC, et al. Development of high-level Echinocandin resistance in a patient with recurrent Candida auris Candidemia secondary to chronic Candiduria. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6(7):ofz262. Epub 2019/07/10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, Farooqi J, Chowdhary A, Govender NP, et al. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(2):134–40. Epub 2016/12/19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Larkin E, Hager C, Chandra J, Mukherjee PK, Retuerto M, Salem I, et al. The emerging pathogen Candida auris: growth phenotype, virulence factors, activity of antifungals, and effect of SCY-078, a novel Glucan synthesis inhibitor, on growth morphology and biofilm formation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2017;61(5). Epub 2017/02/23.

    Google Scholar 

  116. https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/candida-auris/c-auris-treatment.html

  117. Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, Goldman DL, Graybill JR, Hamill RJ, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(3):291–322. Epub 2010/01/06.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Pagano L, Caira M, Candoni A, Offidani M, Fianchi L, Martino B, et al. The epidemiology of fungal infections in patients with hematologic malignancies: the SEIFEM-2004 study. Haematologica. 2006;91(8):1068–75. Epub 2006/08/04.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Marr KA, Carter RA, Crippa F, Wald A, Corey L. Epidemiology and outcome of mould infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34(7):909–17. Epub 2002/03/07.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Ullmann AJ, Aguado JM, Arikan-Akdagli S, Denning DW, Groll AH, Lagrou K, et al. Diagnosis and management of Aspergillus diseases: executive summary of the 2017 ESCMID-ECMM-ERS guideline. Clinical Microbiol Infect. 2018;24(Suppl 1):e1–e38. Epub 2018/03/17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Patterson TF, Donnelly JP. New concepts in diagnostics for invasive mycoses: non-culture-based methodologies. J Fungi (Basel). 2019;5(1). Epub 2019/01/20.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Pfeiffer CD, Fine JP, Safdar N. Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis using a galactomannan assay: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(10):1417–27. Epub 2006/04/19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Foy PC, van Burik JA, Weisdorf DJ. Galactomannan antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2007;13(4):440–3. Epub 2007/02/09.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Ji Y, Xu LP, Liu DH, Chen YH, Han W, Zhang XH, et al. Positive results of serum galactomannan assays and pulmonary computed tomography predict the higher response rate of empirical antifungal therapy in patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2011;17(5):759–64. Epub 2010/11/09.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Maertens J, Theunissen K, Verhoef G, Verschakelen J, Lagrou K, Verbeken E, et al. Galactomannan and computed tomography-based preemptive antifungal therapy in neutropenic patients at high risk for invasive fungal infection: a prospective feasibility study. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(9):1242–50. Epub 2005/10/06.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Guo YL, Chen YQ, Wang K, Qin SM, Wu C, Kong JL. Accuracy of BAL galactomannan in diagnosing invasive aspergillosis: a bivariate metaanalysis and systematic review. Chest. 2010;138(4):817–24. Epub 2010/05/11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Zou M, Tang L, Zhao S, Zhao Z, Chen L, Chen P, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of detecting galactomannan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for diagnosing invasive aspergillosis. PLoS One. 2012;7(8):e43347. Epub 2012/08/21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  128. Adam O, Auperin A, Wilquin F, Bourhis JH, Gachot B, Chachaty E. Treatment with piperacillin-tazobactam and false-positive Aspergillus galactomannan antigen test results for patients with hematological malignancies. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(6):917–20. Epub 2004/03/05.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Aubry A, Porcher R, Bottero J, Touratier S, Leblanc T, Brethon B, et al. Occurrence and kinetics of false-positive Aspergillus galactomannan test results following treatment with beta-lactam antibiotics in patients with hematological disorders. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(2):389–94. Epub 2006/02/04.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  130. Sulahian A, Touratier S, Ribaud P. False positive test for aspergillus antigenemia related to concomitant administration of piperacillin and tazobactam. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(24): 2366–7. Epub 2003/12/12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Viscoli C, Machetti M, Cappellano P, Bucci B, Bruzzi P, Van Lint MT, et al. False-positive galactomannan platelia Aspergillus test results for patients receiving piperacillin-tazobactam. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(6):913–6. Epub 2004/03/05.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Mikulska M, Furfaro E, Del Bono V, Raiola AM, Ratto S, Bacigalupo A, et al. Piperacillin/tazobactam (Tazocin) seems to be no longer responsible for false-positive results of the galactomannan assay. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67(7):1746–8. Epub 2012/04/14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Wheat LJ, Hackett E, Durkin M, Connolly P, Petraitiene R, Walsh TJ, et al. Histoplasmosis-associated cross-reactivity in the BioRad Platelia Aspergillus enzyme immunoassay. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2007;14(5):638–40. Epub 2007/03/09.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  134. Rath PM, Steinmann J. Overview of commercially available PCR assays for the detection of Aspergillus spp. DNA in Patient Samples. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:740. Epub 2018/05/10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  135. Kuhlman JE, Fishman EK, Siegelman SS. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in acute leukemia: characteristic findings on CT, the CT halo sign, and the role of CT in early diagnosis. Radiology. 1985;157(3):611–4. Epub 1985/12/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Orr DP, Myerowitz RL, Dubois PJ. Patho-radiologic correlation of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in the compromised host. Cancer. 1978;41(5):2028–39. Epub 1978/05/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Primack SL, Hartman TE, Lee KS, Muller NL. Pulmonary nodules and the CT halo sign. Radiology. 1994;190(2):513–5. Epub 1994/02/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Greene RE, Schlamm HT, Oestmann JW, Stark P, Durand C, Lortholary O, et al. Imaging findings in acute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: clinical significance of the halo sign. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(3):373–9. Epub 2007/01/06.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Wahba H, Truong MT, Lei X, Kontoyiannis DP, Marom EM. Reversed halo sign in invasive pulmonary fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(11):1733–7. Epub 2008/04/19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Acharige MJT, Koshy S, Ismail N, Aloum O, Jazaerly M, Astudillo CL, et al. Breath-based diagnosis of fungal infections. J Breath Res. 2018;12(2):027108. Epub 2017/11/08.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Koo S, Thomas HR, Daniels SD, Lynch RC, Fortier SM, Shea MM, et al. A breath fungal secondary metabolite signature to diagnose invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(12):1733–40. Epub 2014/10/25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  142. Ullmann AJ, Lipton JH, Vesole DH, Chandrasekar P, Langston A, Tarantolo SR, et al. Posaconazole or fluconazole for prophylaxis in severe graft-versus-host disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(4):335–47. Epub 2007/01/26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Patterson TF, Thompson GR 3rd, Denning DW, Fishman JA, Hadley S, Herbrecht R, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and Management of Aspergillosis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(4):e1–e60. Epub 2016/07/02.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  144. Maertens JA, Raad II, Marr KA, Patterson TF, Kontoyiannis DP, Cornely OA, et al. Isavuconazole versus voriconazole for primary treatment of invasive mould disease caused by Aspergillus and other filamentous fungi (SECURE): a phase 3, randomised-controlled, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2016;387(10020):760–9. Epub 2015/12/20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Lionakis MS, Lewis RE, Kontoyiannis DP. Breakthrough invasive mold infections in the hematology patient: current concepts and future directions. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(10): 1621–30. Epub 2018/06/04.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  146. Rausch CR, DiPippo AJ, Bose P, Kontoyiannis DP. Breakthrough fungal infections in patients with leukemia receiving Isavuconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(10):1610–3. Epub 2018/05/18.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  147. Berkow EL, Nunnally NS, Bandea A, Kuykendall R, Beer K, Lockhart SR. Detection of TR34/L98H CYP51A mutation through passive surveillance for azole-resistant Aspergillus fumigatus in the United States from 2015 to 2017. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62(5). Epub 2018/02/22.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Buil JB, Snelders E, Denardi LB, Melchers WJG, Verweij PE. Trends in azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus, the Netherlands, 1994–2016. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019;25(1):176–8. Epub 2018/12/19.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  149. Verweij PE, Te Dorsthorst DT, Rijs AJ, De Vries-Hospers HG, Meis JF. Nationwide survey of in vitro activities of itraconazole and voriconazole against clinical Aspergillus fumigatus isolates cultured between 1945 and 1998. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40(7):2648–50. Epub 2002/06/29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  150. Cornely OA, Arikan-Akdagli S, Dannaoui E, Groll AH, Lagrou K, Chakrabarti A, et al. ESCMID and ECMM joint clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis 2013. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(Suppl 3):5–26. Epub 2014/02/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Greenberg RN, Mullane K, van Burik JA, Raad I, Abzug MJ, Anstead G, et al. Posaconazole as salvage therapy for zygomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;50(1):126–33. Epub 2005/12/27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  152. van Burik JA, Hare RS, Solomon HF, Corrado ML, Kontoyiannis DP. Posaconazole is effective as salvage therapy in zygomycosis: a retrospective summary of 91 cases. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(7):e61–5. Epub 2006/03/03.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Marty FM, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Cornely OA, Mullane KM, Perfect JR, Thompson GR 3rd, et al. Isavuconazole treatment for mucormycosis: a single-arm open-label trial and case-control analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(7):828–37. Epub 2016/03/13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Sipsas NV, Gamaletsou MN, Anastasopoulou A, Kontoyiannis DP. Therapy of Mucormycosis. J Fungi (Basel). 2018;4(3). Epub 2018/08/02.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Tortorano AM, Richardson M, Roilides E, van Diepeningen A, Caira M, Munoz P, et al. ESCMID and ECMM joint guidelines on diagnosis and management of hyalohyphomycosis: Fusarium spp., Scedosporium spp. and others. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(Suppl 3):27–46. Epub 2014/02/20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Tyring SK, Baker D, Snowden W. Valacyclovir for herpes simplex virus infection: long-term safety and sustained efficacy after 20 years’ experience with acyclovir. J Infect Dis. 2002;186(Suppl 1):S40–6. Epub 2002/09/28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Koc Y, Miller KB, Schenkein DP, Griffith J, Akhtar M, DesJardin J, et al. Varicella zoster virus infections following allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: frequency, risk factors, and clinical outcome. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2000;6(1):44–9. Epub 2000/03/09.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Camargo JF, Komanduri KV. Emerging concepts in cytomegalovirus infection following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Ther. 2017;10(4):233–8. Epub 2017/06/24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Ljungman P, Hakki M, Boeckh M. Cytomegalovirus in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2011;25(1):151–69. Epub 2011/01/18.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  160. Zeiser R, Burchert A, Lengerke C, Verbeek M, Maas-Bauer K, Metzelder SK, et al. Ruxolitinib in corticosteroid-refractory graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic stem cell transplantation: a multicenter survey. Leukemia. 2015;29(10):2062–8. Epub 2015/08/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  161. Ljungman P, Griffiths P, Paya C. Definitions of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34(8):1094–7. Epub 2002/03/27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Ljungman P, de la Camara R, Robin C, Crocchiolo R, Einsele H, Hill JA, et al. Guidelines for the management of cytomegalovirus infection in patients with haematological malignancies and after stem cell transplantation from the 2017 European conference on infections in Leukaemia (ECIL 7). Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(8):e260–e72. Epub 2019/06/04.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Nesher L, Shah DP, Ariza-Heredia EJ, Azzi JM, Siddiqui HK, Ghantoji SS, et al. Utility of the enzyme-linked Immunospot interferon-gamma-release assay to predict the risk of Cytomegalovirus infection in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. J Infect Dis. 2016;213(11): 1701–7. Epub 2016/02/26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  164. Teira P, Battiwalla M, Ramanathan M, Barrett AJ, Ahn KW, Chen M, et al. Early cytomegalovirus reactivation remains associated with increased transplant-related mortality in the current era: a CIBMTR analysis. Blood. 2016;127(20):2427–38. Epub 2016/02/18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  165. Chen K, Cheng MP, Hammond SP, Einsele H, Marty FM. Antiviral prophylaxis for cytomegalovirus infection in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood Adv. 2018;2(16): 2159–75. Epub 2018/08/30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  166. Marty FM, Ljungman P, Chemaly RF, Maertens J, Dadwal SS, Duarte RF, et al. Letermovir prophylaxis for Cytomegalovirus in hematopoietic-cell transplantation. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(25):2433–44. Epub 2017/12/07.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Chou S, Satterwhite LE, Ercolani RJ. New locus of drug resistance in the human Cytomegalovirus UL56 gene revealed by in vitro exposure to Letermovir and ganciclovir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62(9). Epub 2018/06/20.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Jung S, Michel M, Stamminger T, Michel D. Fast breakthrough of resistant cytomegalovirus during secondary letermovir prophylaxis in a hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipient. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):388. Epub 2019/05/10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  169. Knoll BM, Seiter K, Phillips A, Soave R. Breakthrough cytomegalovirus pneumonia in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipient on letermovir prophylaxis. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2019;54(6):911–2. Epub 2018/11/08.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Maertens J, Cordonnier C, Jaksch P, Poire X, Uknis M, Wu J, et al. Maribavir for preemptive treatment of Cytomegalovirus reactivation. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(12):1136–47. Epub 2019/09/19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Maertens J, Cordonnier C, Jaksch P, Poiré X, Wu JJ, Wijatyk A, et al. Maribavir versus Valganciclovir for preemptive treatment of Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Viremia: a randomized, dose-ranging, phase 2 study among hematopoietic stem cell transplant (SCT) and solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3(suppl_1).

    Google Scholar 

  172. Papanicolaou GA, Silveira FP, Langston AA, Pereira MR, Avery RK, Uknis M, et al. Maribavir for refractory or resistant Cytomegalovirus infections in hematopoietic-cell or solid-organ transplant recipients: a randomized, dose-ranging, double-blind, phase 2 study. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68(8):1255–64. Epub 2018/10/18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Kaeuferle T, Krauss R, Blaeschke F, Willier S, Feuchtinger T. Strategies of adoptive T-cell transfer to treat refractory viral infections post allogeneic stem cell transplantation. J Hematol Oncol. 2019;12(1):13. Epub 2019/02/08.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  174. Rasche L, Kapp M, Einsele H, Mielke S. EBV-induced post transplant lymphoproliferative disorders: a persisting challenge in allogeneic hematopoetic SCT. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2014;49(2):163–7. Epub 2013/07/09.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Liu Q, Xuan L, Liu H, Huang F, Zhou H, Fan Z, et al. Molecular monitoring and stepwise preemptive therapy for Epstein-Barr virus viremia after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Am J Hematol. 2013;88(7):550–5. Epub 2013/04/09.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Gruhn B, Meerbach A, Hafer R, Zell R, Wutzler P, Zintl F. Pre-emptive therapy with rituximab for prevention of Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2003;31(11):1023–5. Epub 2003/05/30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Clevinger R. When your pediatric patient becomes a crime scene. J Emerg Nurs. 2010;36(1):53–4. Epub 2010/01/30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Heslop HE, Slobod KS, Pule MA, Hale GA, Rousseau A, Smith CA, et al. Long-term outcome of EBV-specific T-cell infusions to prevent or treat EBV-related lymphoproliferative disease in transplant recipients. Blood. 2010;115(5):925–35. Epub 2009/11/03.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  179. Lindemans CA, Leen AM, Boelens JJ. How I treat adenovirus in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Blood. 2010;116(25):5476–85. Epub 2010/09/15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  180. Anderson EJ, Guzman-Cottrill JA, Kletzel M, Thormann K, Sullivan C, Zheng X, et al. High-risk adenovirus-infected pediatric allogeneic hematopoietic progenitor cell transplant recipients and preemptive cidofovir therapy. Pediatr Transplant. 2008;12(2):219–27. Epub 2008/03/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Muller WJ, Levin MJ, Shin YK, Robinson C, Quinones R, Malcolm J, et al. Clinical and in vitro evaluation of cidofovir for treatment of adenovirus infection in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(12):1812–6. Epub 2005/11/17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Feucht J, Opherk K, Lang P, Kayser S, Hartl L, Bethge W, et al. Adoptive T-cell therapy with hexon-specific Th1 cells as a treatment of refractory adenovirus infection after HSCT. Blood. 2015;125(12):1986–94. Epub 2015/01/27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Hirsch HH. BK virus: opportunity makes a pathogen. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(3):354–60. Epub 2005/07/12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Philippe M, Ranchon F, Gilis L, Schwiertz V, Vantard N, Ader F, et al. Cidofovir in the treatment of BK virus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2016;22(4):723–30. Epub 2016/01/01.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Martino R, Bretagne S, Einsele H, Maertens J, Ullmann AJ, Parody R, et al. Early detection of toxoplasma infection by molecular monitoring of toxoplasma gondii in peripheral blood samples after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(1):67–78. Epub 2004/12/23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Costa JM, Munoz C, Kruger D, Martino R, Held TK, Darde ML, et al. Quality control for the diagnosis of toxoplasma gondii reactivation in SCT patients using PCR assays. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2001;28(5):527–8. Epub 2001/10/11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Iori AP, Ferretti A, Gentile G, Gabrielli S, Perrone S, Barberi W, et al. Strongyloides stercoralis infection in allogeneic stem cell transplant: a case report and review of the literature. Transpl Infect Dis. 2014;16(4):625–30. Epub 2014/06/04.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Ljungman P, Cordonnier C, Einsele H, Englund J, Machado CM, Storek J, et al. Vaccination of hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2009;44(8):521–6. Epub 2009/10/29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, Davies EG, Avery R, Tomblyn M, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(3):309–18. Epub 2014/01/15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Eisenberg RA, Jawad AF, Boyer J, Maurer K, McDonald K, Prak ET, et al. Rituximab-treated patients have a poor response to influenza vaccination. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(2):388–96. Epub 2012/10/16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Kennedy LB, Li Z, Savani BN, Ljungman P. Measuring immune response to commonly used vaccinations in adult recipients of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2017;23(10):1614–21. Epub 2017/06/19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA

    Gowri Satyanarayana

  2. Department of Pharmaceutical Services, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA

    Katie S. Gatwood & Whitney J. Nesbitt

Authors
  1. Gowri Satyanarayana
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katie S. Gatwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Whitney J. Nesbitt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gowri Satyanarayana .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Immunocompromised Host Service Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA

    Michele I. Morris

  2. Transplant and Immunocompromised Host Infectious Diseases, Infectious Diseases Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Camille Nelson Kotton

  3. Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA

    Cameron R. Wolfe

Section Editor information

  1. Infectious Diseases Division, Harvard University Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Camille Nelson Kotton

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Satyanarayana, G., Gatwood, K.S., Nesbitt, W.J. (2021). Stem Cell Transplantation: Infection Risk by Transplant Type and Emerging Trends in Infection Management. In: Morris, M.I., Kotton, C.N., Wolfe, C.R. (eds) Emerging Transplant Infections. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25869-6_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25869-6_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-25868-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-25869-6

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation