Abstract
Gun violence is a substantial threat to global public health and safety. Each year, about 250,000 people in the world die from injuries inflicted with firearms, excluding those occurring in the context of conflict and terrorism. Many more individuals sustain nonfatal but life-altering firearm injuries or are exposed to the trauma caused by the use of firearms. Firearm injuries also exert a heavy toll on national economies. Different forms of firearm-related harm have multiple and distinct causes and consequences that span historical and developmental time and ecological levels. These can be categorized according to several dimensions, including the person or group causing or experiencing the harm (e.g., self-directed, inter-personal), nature of acts (e.g., physical force, threats), and manner (e.g., intentional, unintentional). This inaugural chapter on gun violence epidemiology provides an overview of the epidemiology of firearm-related harm in terms of scope and burden. Additionally, it uses the organizing framework of social ecological model to explain the determinants, consequences, and prevention of gun violence. Methodological considerations, legal, political, and ethical issues, are presented, and future directions and specific contributions of the field of epidemiology to gun violence prevention are proposed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Abdalla SM, Keyes KM, Galea S (2021) A public health approach to tackling the role of culture in shaping the gun violence epidemic in the United States. Public Health Rep 136(1):6–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354920965263
Abelow H, Crifasi C, Webster D (2020) The legal and empirical case for firearm purchaser licensing. J Law Med Ethics 48(4 Suppl):17–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073110520979397
Agnew R, Brezina T (2019) General strain theory. In: Krohn MD, Hendrix N, Penly Hall G, Lizotte AJ (eds) Handbook on crime and deviance. Handbooks of sociology and social research. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 145–160
Ahern J (2020) Minimum wage policy protects against suicide in the USA. J Epidemiol Community Health 74(11):873–874. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2019-213647
Ahern J, Matthay EC, Goin DE, Farkas K, Rudolph KE (2018) Acute changes in community violence and increases in hospital visits and deaths from stress-responsive diseases. Epidemiology 29(5):684–691. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000879
Alcorn T (2017) Trends in research publications about gun violence in the United States, 1960 to 2014. JAMA Intern Med 177(1):124–126. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.7076
Allchin A, Chaplin V, Horwitz J (2019) Limiting access to lethal means: applying the social ecological model for firearm suicide prevention. Inj Prev 25(Suppl 1):i44–i48. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2018-042809
Alves FJO, Machado DB, Barreto ML (2019) Effect of the Brazilian cash transfer programme on suicide rates: a longitudinal analysis of the Brazilian municipalities. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 54(5):599–606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1627-6
Amnesty International (2022) Gun violence – key facts. https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/arms-control/gun-violence/. Accessed 21 Mar 2022
Anestis MD (2016) Prior suicide attempts are less common in suicide decedents who died by firearms relative to those who died by other means. J Affect Disord 189:106–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.007
Ang D (2021) The effects of police violence on inner-city students*. Q J Econ 136(1):115–168. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjaa027
Anglemyer A, Horvath T, Rutherford G (2014) The accessibility of firearms and risk for suicide and homicide victimization among household members. Ann Intern Med 160(2):101–110. https://doi.org/10.7326/M13-1301
ATF (2019) Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco Firearms and Explosives. Fact sheet- fact and figures for fiscal. https://www.atf.gov/resource-center/fact-sheet/fact-sheet-facts-and-figures-fiscal-year-2019. Accessed 3 May 2022
Aubel AJ, Pallin R, Wintemute GJ, Kravitz-Wirtz N (2021) Exposure to violence, firearm involvement, and socioemotional consequences among California adults. J Interpers Violence 36(23–24):11822–11838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520983924
Ayres I, Shelley Z, Vars FE (2020) The Walmart effect: testing private interventions to reduce gun suicide. J Law Med Ethics 48(4 Suppl):74–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073110520979404
Azrael D, Cook PJ, Miller M (2004) State and local prevalence of firearms ownership measurement, structure, and trends. J Quant Criminol 20(1):43–62. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:joqc.0000016699.11995.c7
Azrael D, Cohen J, Salhi C, Miller M (2018) Firearm storage in gun-owning households with children: results of a 2015 national survey. J Urban Health 95(3):295–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0261-7
Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT (2017) Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. Lancet 389(10077):1453–1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X
Baker T, Pelfrey WV (2016) Bullying victimization, social network usage, and delinquent coping in a sample of urban youth: examining the predictions of general strain theory. Violence Vict 31(6):1021–1043. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00154
Bancalari P, Sommer M, Rajan S (2022) Youth exposure to endemic community gun violence: a systematic review. Adolesc Res Rev. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-022-00178-5
Barber C, Frank E, Demicco R (2017) Reducing suicides through partnerships between health professionals and gun owner groups-beyond Docs vs Glocks. JAMA Intern Med 177(1):5–6. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.6712
Barber C, Azrael D, Miller M, Hemenway D (2022) Who owned the gun in firearm suicides of men, women, and youth in five US states? Prev Med 107066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107066
Barnhorst A, Gonzales H, Asif-Sattar R (2021) Suicide prevention efforts in the United States and their effectiveness. Curr Opin Psychiatry 34(3):299–305. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000682
Barrett JT, Lee LK, Monuteaux MC, Farrell CA, Hoffmann JA, Fleegler EW (2022) Association of county-level poverty and inequities with firearm-related mortality in US youth. JAMA Pediatr 176(2):e214822. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.4822
Barry CL, Stone EM, Crifasi CK, Vernick JS, Webster DW, McGinty EE (2019) Trends in public opinion on US gun laws: majorities of gun owners and non–gun owners support a range of measures. Health Aff 38(10):1727–1734. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00576
Bartos BJ, Mccleary R, Mazerolle L, Luengen K (2020) Controlling gun violence: assessing the impact of Australia’s gun buyback program using a synthetic control group experiment. Prev Sci 21(1):131–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-019-01064-8
BBC (2017) Massacre: an afternoon that changed a town forever. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/hungerford_massacre. Accessed 3 May 2022
Beardslee J, Mulvey E, Schubert C, Allison P, Infante A, Pardini D (2018) Gun- and non-gun-related violence exposure and risk for subsequent gun carrying among male juvenile offenders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 57(4):274–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.01.012
Beidas RS, Ahmedani BK, Linn KA, Marcus SC, Johnson C, Maye M, Westphal J, Wright L, Beck AL, Buttenheim AM, Daley MF, Davis M, Elias ME, Jager-Hyman S, Hoskins K, Lieberman A, McArdle B, Ritzwoller DP, Small DS, Wolk CB, Williams NJ, Boggs JM (2021) Study protocol for a type III hybrid effectiveness-implementation trial of strategies to implement firearm safety promotion as a universal suicide prevention strategy in pediatric primary care. Implement Sci 16(1):89. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-021-01154-8
Bender AK, Koegler E, Johnson SD, Murugan V, Wamser-Nanney R (2021) Guns and intimate partner violence among adolescents: a scoping review. J Fam Violence 36(5):605–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00193-x
Benns M, Ruther M, Nash N, Bozeman M, Harbrecht B, Miller K (2020) The impact of historical racism on modern gun violence: redlining in the city of Louisville, KY. Injury 51(10):2192–2198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2020.06.042
Betz ME, Azrael D, Barber C, Miller M (2016) Public opinion regarding whether speaking with patients about firearms is appropriate: results of a national survey. Ann Intern Med 165(8):543–550. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-0739
Blumstein A (2002) Youth, guns, and violent crime. Futur Child 12(2):38–53
Boine C, Siegel M, Ross C, Fleegler EW, Alcorn T (2020) What is gun culture? Cultural variations and trends across the United States. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 7(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0520-6
Bond AE, Bandel SL, Rodriguez TR, Anestis JC, Anestis MD (2022) Mental health treatment seeking and history of suicidal thoughts among suicide decedents by mechanism, 2003–2018. JAMA Netw Open 5(3):e222101. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.2101
Bonne S, Dicker RA (2020) Hospital-based violence intervention programs to address social determinants of health and violence. Curr Trauma Rep 6(1):23–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40719-020-00184-9
Bowen AG, Tessler RA, Bowen D, Haviland MJ, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Rivara FP (2021) Relation of driving under the influence laws to access to firearms across US States. Am J Public Health 111(2):253–258. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305995
Boynton-Jarrett R, Ryan LM, Berkman LF, Wright RJ (2008) Cumulative violence exposure and self-rated health: longitudinal study of adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics 122(5):961–970. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3063
Braga AA, Weisburd DL (2012) The effects of “Pulling levers” focused deterrence strategies on crime. Campbell Syst Rev 8(1):1–90. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2012.6
Braga AA, Papachristos AV, Hureau DM (2010) The concentration and stability of gun violence at micro places in Boston, 1980–2008. J Quant Criminol 26(1):33–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-009-9082-x
Braga AA, Weisburd D, Turchan B (2018) Focused deterrence strategies and crime control. Criminol Public Policy 17(1):205–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12353
Braga AA, Griffiths E, Sheppard K, Douglas S (2021) Firearm instrumentality: do guns make violent situations more lethal? Annu Rev Criminol 4(1):147–164. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-061020-021528
Branas CC, Richmond TS, Culhane DP, Ten Have TR, Wiebe DJ (2009) Investigating the link between gun possession and gun assault. Am J Public Health 99(11):2034–2040. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.143099
Branas CC, Rubin D, Guo W (2013) Vacant properties and violence in neighborhoods. ISRN Public Health 2012:246142. https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/246142
Branas CC, South E, Kondo MC, Hohl BC, Bourgois P, Wiebe DJ, MacDonald JM (2018) Citywide cluster randomized trial to restore blighted vacant land and its effects on violence, crime, and fear. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115(12):2946–2951. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718503115
Brent DA, Perper JA, Goldstein CE, Kolko DJ, Allan MJ, Allman CJ, Zelenak JP (1988) Risk factors for adolescent suicide. A comparison of adolescent suicide victims with suicidal inpatients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45(6):581–588. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800300079011
Brent DA, Perper JA, Allman CJ, Moritz GM, Wartella ME, Zelenak JP (1991) The presence and accessibility of firearms in the homes of adolescent suicides: a case-control study. JAMA 266(21):2989–2995. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1991.03470210057032
Brent DA, Perper J, Moritz G, Friend A, Schweers J, Allman C, McQuiston L, Boylan MB, Roth C, Balach L (1993a) Adolescent witnesses to a peer suicide. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32(6):1184–1188. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199311000-00011
Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G, Baugher M, Schweers J, Roth C (1993b) Firearms and adolescent suicide: a community case-control study. Am J Dis Child 147(10):1066–1071. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1993.02160340052013
Briceño-León R (2005) Urban violence and public health in Latin America: a sociological explanatory framework. Cad Saude Publica 21(6):1629–1648; discussion 1649–1664. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0102-311x2005000600002
Britanica (2022a) Dunblane school massacre. https://www.britannica.com/event/Dunblane-school-massacre. Accessed 3 May 2022
Britanica (2022b) Port Arthur Massacre. https://www.britannica.com/event/Port-Arthur-Massacre. Accessed 3 May 2022
Brown P (2017) Impact of gun law reforms on rates of homicide, suicide and mass shootings in Australia. Evid Based Ment Health 20(1):25. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2016-102555
Bruce ML (2010) Suicide risk and prevention in veteran populations. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1208:98–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05697.x
Buggs S, Zeoli AM (2022) Gun homicide research: what we know and where we need to go. Homicide Stud 26(1):11–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679211048495
Buggs SA, Webster DW, Crifasi CK (2022) Using synthetic control methodology to estimate effects of a cure violence intervention in Baltimore, Maryland. Inj Prev 28(1):61–67. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2020-044056
Buller AM, Peterman A, Ranganathan M, Bleile A, Hidrobo M, Heise L (2018) A mixed-method review of cash transfers and intimate partner violence in low- and middle-income countries. World Bank Res Obs 33(2):218–258. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lky002
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2022) National Crime Victimization Survey. https://bjs.ojp.gov/data-collection/ncvs
Burrell GL, Roosa MW (2009) Mothers’ economic hardship and behavior problems in their early adolescents. J Fam Issues 30(4):511–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X08327887
Büscher R, Torok M, Terhorst Y, Sander L (2020) Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy to reduce suicidal ideation. JAMA Netw Open 3(4):e203933. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3933
Butler EK, Boveng HM, Harruff RC, Duchin JS, Vavilala MS, Rivara FP, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2020) Risk of suicide, homicide, and unintentional firearm deaths in the home. JAMA Intern Med 180(6):909–911. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.0806
Butts J, Bostwick L, Porter J (2014) Denormalizing violence: evaluation framework for a public health model of violence prevention. New York, NY: research & evaluation center, John Jay college of criminal justice, city university of New York
Butts JA, Roman CG, Bostwick L, Porter JR (2015) Cure violence: a public health model to reduce gun violence. Annu Rev Public Health 36(1):39–53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122509
Callahan CM, Rivara FP, Koepsell TD (1994) Money for guns: evaluation of the Seattle Gun Buy-Back Program. Public Health Rep 109(4):472–477
Callaway B, Sant’Anna PHC (2021) Difference-in-differences with multiple time periods. J Econ 225(2):200–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2020.12.001
Canadian Encyclopedia (2012) École Polytechnique Tragedy (Montreal Massacre). https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/polytechnique-tragedy. Accessed 3 May 2022
Carson AE (2015) Prisoners in 2014. U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, DC
Carter PM, Walton MA, Roehler DR, Goldstick J, Zimmerman MA, Blow FC, Cunningham RM (2015) Firearm violence among high-risk emergency department youth after an assault injury. Pediatrics 135(5):805–815. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-3572
Carter PM, Walton MA, Goldstick J, Epstein-Ngo QM, Zimmerman MA, Mercado MC, Williams AG, Cunningham RM (2017) Violent firearm-related conflicts among high-risk youth: an event-level and daily calendar analysis. Prev Med 102:112–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.07.011
Carter PM, Zimmerman MA, Cunningham RM (2021) Addressing key gaps in existing longitudinal research and establishing a pathway forward for firearm violence prevention research. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 50(3):367–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2021.1913741
Castillo-Carniglia A, Kagawa RMC, Cerdá M, Crifasi CK, Vernick JS, Webster DW, Wintemute GJ (2019) California’s comprehensive background check and misdemeanor violence prohibition policies and firearm mortality. Ann Epidemiol 30:50–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2018.10.001
Center for American Progress (2015) The Bureau and the Bureau. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/the-bureau-and-the-bureau/. Accessed 3 May 2022
Centers for Disease Contorl and Prevention (2004) BRFSS 2004 survey data and documentation. https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/annual_data/annual_2004.htm. Accessed 30 Apr 2022
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021) National violent death reporting system. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Atlanta, GA
Chapman S, Alpers P, Agho K, Jones M (2015) Australia’s 1996 gun law reforms: faster falls in firearm deaths, firearm suicides, and a decade without mass shootings. Inj Prev 21(5):355–362. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2006.013714rep
Chapman S, Alpers P, Jones M (2016) Association between gun law reforms and intentional firearm deaths in Australia, 1979–2013. JAMA 316(3):291. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.8752
Chapman S, Stewart M, Alpers P, Jones M (2018) Fatal firearm incidents before and after Australia’s 1996 national firearms agreement banning semiautomatic rifles. Ann Intern Med 169:62–64
Cheng C, Hoekstra M (2013) Does strengthening self-defense law deter crime or escalate violence?: evidence from expansions to castle doctrine. J Hum Resour 48(3):821–853. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhr.2013.0023
Chesnut KY, Barragan M, Gravel J, Pifer NA, Reiter K, Sherman N, Tita GE (2017) Not an ‘iron pipeline’, but many capillaries: regulating passive transactions in Los Angeles’ secondary, illegal gun market. Inj Prev 23(4):226–231. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2016-042088
Choi NG, DiNitto DM, Marti CN (2017) Youth firearm suicide: precipitating/risk factors and gun access. Child Youth Serv Rev 83:9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.10.022
Choi KR, Saadi A, Takada S, Easterlin MC, Buchbinder LS, Johnson DC, Zimmerman FJ (2020) Longitudinal associations between healthcare resources, policy, and firearm-related suicide and homicide from 2012 to 2016. J Gen Intern Med 35(7):2043–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05613-3
Chung E, Parsons C, Solomon D (2017) The right way to send in the feds. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/right-way-send-feds/ Accessed 3 May 2022
Cohen DA, Mason K, Bedimo A, Scribner R, Basolo V, Farley TA (2003) Neighborhood physical conditions and health. Am J Public Health 93(3):467–471
Coleman SM, Lira MC, Blanchette J, Heeren TC, Naimi TS (2021) Alcohol policies, firearm policies, and suicide in the United States: a lagged cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 21(1):366. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10216-x
Cone J, Williams B, Hampton D, Prakash P, Bendix P, Wilson K, Rogers S, Zakrison T (2021) The ethics and politics of gun violence research. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A 31(9):983–987. https://doi.org/10.1089/lap.2019.0626
Conner A, Azrael D, Miller M (2019) Suicide case-fatality rates in the United States, 2007 to 2014: a nationwide population-based study. Ann Intern Med 171(12):885–895. https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-1324
Consolidated Appropriations Act (2010) Pub. L. No. 111–117, 123 Stat. 3128–3129
Cook PJ, Parker ST, Pollack HA (2015) Sources of guns to dangerous people: what we learn by asking them. Prev Med 79:28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.04.021
Cook PJ, Rivera-Aguirre AE, Cerdá M, Wintemute G (2017) Re: The hidden epidemic of firearm injury: increasing firearm injury rates during 2001–2013. Am J Epidemiol 186(7):896–896. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx279
Corburn J, Boggan D, Muttaqi K (2021a) Urban safety, community healing & gun violence reduction: the advance peace model. Urban Transform 3(1):5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42854-021-00021-5
Corburn J, Boggan D, Muttaqi K, Vaughn S, Houston J, Thibodeaux J, Muhammad B (2021b) Advancing urban peace: preventing gun violence and healing traumatized youth. Youth Justice 14732254211020138. https://doi.org/10.1177/14732254211020138
Crifasi CK, Ward JA, Mcginty EE, Webster DW, Barry CL (2021) Gun purchasing behaviours during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, March to mid-July 2020. Int Rev Psychiatry 33(7):593–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2021.1901669
Cukier W, Sheptycki J (2012) Globalization of gun culture transnational reflections on pistolization and masculinity, flows and resistance. Int J Law Crime Justice 40:3–19
Cummings P, Koepsell TD, Grossman DC, Savarino J, Thompson RS (1997) The association between the purchase of a handgun and homicide or suicide. Am J Public Health 87(6):974–978. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.87.6.974
Dahl GB, Lochner L (2012) The impact of family income on child achievement: evidence from the earned income tax credit. Am Econ Rev 102(5):1927–1956. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.5.1927
Dahlberg LL, Potter LB (2001) Youth violence: developmental pathways and prevention challenges. Am J Prev Med 20(1, Suppl 1):3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00268-3
Dahlberg D, Butchart A, Mercy J, Simon T (2022) Firearm injuries and public health. Oxford Research Encyclopedia. https://oxfordre.com/publichealth/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.001.0001/acrefore-9780190632366-e-298. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Dare AJ, Irving H, Guerrero-López CM, Watson LK, Kolpak P, Shigematsu LMR, Sanches M, Gomez D, Gelband H, Jha P (2019) Geospatial, racial, and educational variation in firearm mortality in the USA, Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia, 1990–2015: a comparative analysis of vital statistics data. Lancet Public Health 4(6):e281–e290. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30018-0
de Soysa I, Jackson T, Ormhaug C (2009) Does globalization profit the small arms bazaar? Int Interact 35:86–105
Decker MR, Grace KT, Holliday CN, Bevilacqua KG, Kaur A, Miller J (2022) Safe and stable housing for intimate partner violence survivors, Maryland, 2019–2020. Am J Public Health e1–e6. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306728
Degli Esposti M, Wiebe DJ, Gravel J, Humphreys DK (2020) Increasing adolescent firearm homicides and racial disparities following Florida’s ‘Stand your ground’ self-defence law. Inj Prev 26(2):187–190. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043530
Degli Esposti M, Wiebe DJ, Gasparrini A, Humphreys DK (2022) Analysis of “Stand your ground” self-defense laws and statewide rates of homicides and firearm homicides. JAMA Netw Open 5(2):e220077. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.0077
Dingeldein L, Sheehan K, Krcmarik M, Dowd MD (2012) Evaluation of a firearm injury prevention web-based curriculum. Teach Learn Med 24(4):327–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/10401334.2012.715254
Dong B (2021) Developmental comorbidity of substance use and handgun carrying among U.S. youth. Am J Prev Med 61(2):209–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.02.015
Donnelly KA, Rucker A, Boyle MD, Fornari MJ, Badolato GM, Goyal MK (2022) Experiencing bullying is associated with firearm access, weapon carriage, depression, marijuana use, and justice involvement in adolescents. Pediatr Emerg Care 38(2):e918. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0000000000002473
Donohue JJ, Aneja A, Weber KD (2017) Right-to-carry laws and violent crime: a comprehensive assessment using panel data and a state-level synthetic control analysis. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge
Doupnik SK, Rudd B, Schmutte T, Worsley D, Bowden CF, McCarthy E, Eggan E, Bridge JA, Marcus SC (2020) Association of suicide prevention interventions with subsequent suicide attempts, linkage to follow-up care, and depression symptoms for acute care settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiat 77(10):1021–1030. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.1586
Duailibi S, Ponicki W, Grube J, Pinsky I, Laranjeira R, Raw M (2007) The effect of restricting opening hours on alcohol-related violence. Am J Public Health 97(12):2276–2280. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.092684
DuRant RH, Treiber F, Goodman E, Woods ER (1996) Intentions to use violence among young adolescents. Pediatrics 98(6 Pt 1):1104–1108
Durkin A, Schenck C, Narayan Y, Nyhan K, Khoshnood K, Vermund SH (2020) Prevention of firearm injury through policy and law: the social ecological model. J Law Med Ethics 48(4 Suppl):191–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073110520979422
Ellyson AM, Rivara FP, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2022) Poverty and firearm-related deaths among US youth. JAMA Pediatr 176(2):e214819. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.4819
Esparza D, Ricart C, Vargas E (2021) Gun trafficking and violence: from the global network to the local security challenge. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2022) Supplementary homicide reports. https://ucrbook.com/shr.html. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Ford JL, Browning CR (2014) Effects of exposure to violence with a weapon during adolescence on adult hypertension. Ann Epidemiol 24(3):193–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2013.12.004
Fowler KA, Gladden RM, Vagi KJ, Barnes J, Frazier L (2015) Increase in suicides associated with home eviction and foreclosure during the US housing crisis: findings from 16 national violent death reporting system states, 2005–2010. Am J Public Health 105(2):311–316. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.301945
Freskos B (2018) Easy targets. The Trace. https://www.thetrace.org/features/gun-store-theft-trafficking-atf/. Accessed 3 May 2022
Galea S, Abdalla SM (2019) The public’s health and the social meaning of guns. Palgrave Commun 5(1):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0322-x
Gates S, Hegre H, Nygård HM, Strand H (2012) Development consequences of armed conflict. World Dev 40(9):1713–1722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.04.031
GBD 2019 Police Violence US Subnational Collaborators (2021) Fatal police violence by race and state in the USA, 1980–2019: a network meta-regression. Lancet 398(10307):1239–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(21)01609-3
Geller LB, Booty M, Crifasi CK (2021) The role of domestic violence in fatal mass shootings in the United States, 2014–2019. Inj Epidemiol 8(1):38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-021-00330-0
Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development (2015) Violence, security, and the new global development agenda. In: Geneva Declaration on armed violence and development, global burden of armed violence: every body counts. http://www.genevadeclaration.org/measurability/global-burden-of-armed-violence/global-burden-of-armed-violence-2015.html. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Global Burden of Disease (2019) Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. https://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-2019. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Global Health Data Exchange (2022) GBD results tool. https://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool
Goin DE, Rudolph KE (2021) Guns, laws, and causality. Epidemiology 32(1):46–49. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000001261
Goin DE, Rudolph KE, Ahern J (2018) Predictors of firearm violence in urban communities: a machine-learning approach. Health Place 51:61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.02.013
Goin DE, Rudolph KE, Gomez AM, Ahern J (2020) Mediation of firearm violence and preterm birth by pregnancy complications and health behaviors: addressing structural and postexposure confounding. Am J Epidemiol 189(8):820–831. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwaa046
Goldstein EV, Prater LC, Wickizer TM (2019) Behavioral health care and firearm suicide: do states with greater treatment capacity have lower suicide rates? Health Aff 38(10):1711–1718. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00753
Goldstick JE, Carter PM, Walton MA, Dahlberg LL, Sumner SA, Zimmerman MA, Cunningham RM (2017) Development of the SaFETy score: a clinical screening tool for predicting future firearm violence risk. Ann Intern Med 166(10):707–714. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-1927
Grassel KM (2003) Association between handgun purchase and mortality from firearm injury. Inj Prev 9(1):48–52. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.9.1.48
Grossman DC, Reay DT, Baker SA (1999) Self-inflicted and unintentional firearm injuries among children and adolescents: the source of the firearm. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 153(8):875–878. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.153.8.875
Gun Policy (2022a) Armed violence and gun laws, country by country. https://www.gunpolicy.org/. Accessed 30 Apr 2022
Gun Policy (2022b). https://www.gunpolicy.org/. Accessed 19 Apr 2022
Gun Policy (2022c) Global impact of gun violence. https://www.gunpolicy.org/. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Gunn JF, Boxer P (2021) Gun laws and youth gun carrying: results from the youth risk behavior surveillance system, 2005–2017. J Youth Adolesc 50(3):446–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01384-x
Gunnell D, Middleton N, Frankel S (2000) Method availability and the prevention of suicide – a re-analysis of secular trends in England and Wales 1950–1975. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 35(10):437–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001270050261
Haviland MJ, Gause E, Rivara FP, Bowen AG, Hanron A, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2021) Assessment of county-level proxy variables for household firearm ownership. Prev Med 148:106571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106571
Heller SB (2014) Summer jobs reduce violence among disadvantaged youth. Science 346(6214):1219–1223. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1257809
Hemenway D (2016) Firearm legislation and mortality in the USA. Lancet 387(10030):1796–1797. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00206-3
Herron P, Schroeder M, Lazarevic J, Marsh N (2011) Larger but less known: authorized light weapons transfers. In: The small arms survey 2011: states of security. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 8–41
Hohl BC, Wiley S, Wiebe DJ, Culyba AJ, Drake R, Branas CC (2017) Association of drug and alcohol use with adolescent firearm homicide at individual, family, and neighborhood levels. JAMA Intern Med 177(3):317–324. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.8180
Houle JN, Light MT (2014) The home foreclosure crisis and rising suicide rates, 2005 to 2010. Am J Public Health 104(6):1073–1079. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301774
Humphreys DK, Gasparrini A, Wiebe DJ (2017) Evaluating the impact of Florida’s “Stand your ground” self-defense law on homicide and suicide by firearm: an interrupted time series study. JAMA Intern Med 177(1):44–50. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.6811
Hureau D, Wilson T (2021) The co-occurrence of illegal gun carrying and gun violence exposure: evidence for practitioners from young people adjudicated for serious involvement in crime. Am J Epidemiol 190(12):2544–2551. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwab188
Hyder A, Werbick M, Scannelli L, Paichadze N (2021) The COVID-19 pandemic exposes another commercial determinant of health: the global firearm industry. Glob Health Sci Pract 2021:264–267
ICD Injury Codes and Matrices (2011) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/injury/injury_matrices.htm. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Ingram MC, da Costa MM (2015) Geographies of violence: a spatial analysis of five types of homicide in Brazil’s municipalities. Kellogg Institue for Internatiional Studies, Notre Dame
Irvin-Erickson Y, Bing B, Gurvis A, Mohr E (2016) The effect of gun violence on local economies. Urban Institute, Washington, DC
Jacoby SF, Dong B, Beard JH, Wiebe DJ, Morrison CN (2018) The enduring impact of historical and structural racism on urban violence in Philadelphia. Soc Sci Med 199:87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.05.038
Jay J (2020) Alcohol outlets and firearm violence: a place-based case–control study using satellite imagery and machine learning. Inj Prev 26(1):61–66. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043248
Jetelina KK, Reingle Gonzalez JM, Cuccaro PM, Peskin MF, Pompeii L, Atem F, Elliott MN, Earnshaw VA, Davies SL, Schuster MA (2019) Mechanisms and frequency of violent injuries among victims and perpetrators of bullying. J Adolesc Health 64(5):664–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.10.295
Jindal M, Mistry KB, Trent M, McRae A, Thornton RLJ (2022) Police exposures and the health and well-being of Black youth in the US: a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr 176(1):78–88. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2929
Jovanovic T, Vance LA, Cross D, Knight AK, Kilaru V, Michopoulos V, Klengel T, Smith AK (2017) Exposure to violence accelerates epigenetic aging in children. Sci Rep 7(1):8962. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09235-9
Juan S-C, Hemenway D (2017) From depression to youth school gun carrying in America: social connectedness may help break the link. Cogent Soc Sci 3(1):1314877. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2017.1314877
Kagawa RMC, Castillo-Carniglia A, Vernick JS, Webster D, Crifasi C, Rudolph KE, Cerdá M, Shev A, Wintemute GJ (2018a) Repeal of comprehensive background check policies and firearm homicide and suicide. Epidemiology 29(4):494–502. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000838
Kagawa RMC, Cerdá M, Rudolph KE, Pear VA, Keyes KM, Wintemute GJ (2018b) Firearm involvement in violent victimization and mental health: an observational study. Ann Intern Med 169(8):584. https://doi.org/10.7326/m18-0365
Kagawa RMC, Stewart S, Wright MA, Shev AB, Pear VA, McCort CD, Pallin R, Asif-Sattar R, Sohl S, Kass PH, Cerdá M, Gruenewald P, Studdert DM, Wintemute GJ (2020) Association of prior convictions for driving under the influence with risk of subsequent arrest for violent crimes among handgun purchasers. JAMA Intern Med 180(1):35–43. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.4491
Kalesan B, Villarreal MD, Keyes KM, Galea S (2016) Gun ownership and social gun culture. Inj Prev 22(3):216–220. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041586
Karp A (2018) Estimating global civilian-held firearms numbers, small arms survey. https://www.smallarmssurvey.org/resource/estimating-global-civilian-held-firearms-numbers. Accessed 29 Apr 2022
Kaufman EJ, Morrison CN, Branas CC, Wiebe DJ (2018) State firearm laws and interstate firearm deaths from homicide and suicide in the United States: a cross-sectional analysis of data by County. JAMA Intern Med 178(5):692–700. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.0190
Kegler SR, Dahlberg LL, Vivolo-Kantor AM (2021) A descriptive exploration of the geographic and sociodemographic concentration of firearm homicide in the United States, 2004–2018. Prev Med 153:106767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106767
Kellermann AL, Reay DT (1986) Protection or peril? An analysis of firearm-related deaths in the home. N Engl J Med 314(24):1557–1560. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm198606123142406
Kellermann AL, Rivara FP (2013) Silencing the science on gun research. JAMA 309(6):549–550. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.208207
Kellermann AL, Rivara FP, Somes G, Reay DT, Francisco J, Banton JG, Prodzinski J, Fligner C, Hackman BB (1992) Suicide in the home in relation to gun ownership. N Engl J Med 327(7):467–472. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199208133270705
Kelly T, Brandspigel S, Polzer E, Betz ME (2020) Firearm storage maps: a pragmatic approach to reduce firearm suicide during times of risk. Ann Intern Med 172(5):351–353. https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-2944
Kennedy BP, Kawachi I, Prothrow-Stith D, Lochner K, Gupta V (1998) Social capital, income inequality, and firearm violent crime. Soc Sci Med 47(1):7–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(98)00097-5
Kickbusch I, Allen L, Franz C (2016) The commercial determinants of health. Lancet Glob Health 4:e895–e896
Kim D (2019) Social determinants of health in relation to firearm-related homicides in the United States: a nationwide multilevel cross-sectional study. PLoS Med 16(12):e1002978. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002978
Klieve H, Barnes M, De Leo D (2009) Controlling firearms use in Australia: has the 1996 gun law reform produced the decrease in rates of suicide with this method? Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 44(4):285–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-008-0435-9
Kondo MC, South EC, Branas CC, Richmond TS, Wiebe DJ (2017) The association between urban tree cover and gun assault: a case-control and case-crossover study. Am J Epidemiol 186(3):289–296. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx096
Koplan JP, Bond TC, Merson MH, Reddy KS, Rodriguez MH, Sewankambo NK, Wasserheit JN, Consortium of Universities for Global Health Executive B (2009) Towards a common definition of global health. Lancet 373(9679):1993–1995. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60332-9
Koyanagi A, Oh H, Carvalho AF, Smith L, Haro JM, Vancampfort D, Stubbs B, DeVylder JE (2019) Bullying victimization and suicide attempt among adolescents aged 12–15 years from 48 countries. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 58(9):907–918.e904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.10.018
Kravitz-Wirtz N, Aubel A, Schleimer J, Pallin R, Wintemute G (2021) Public concern about violence, firearms, and the COVID-19 pandemic in California. JAMA Netw Open 4(1):e2033484. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33484
Krieger N, Feldman JM, Waterman PD, Chen JT, Coull BA, Hemenway D (2017) Local residential segregation matters: stronger association of census tract compared to conventional city-level measures with fatal and non-fatal assaults (total and firearm related), using the Index of Concentration at the Extremes (ICE) for racial, economic, and racialized economic segregation, Massachusetts (US), 1995–2010. J Urban Health 94(2):244–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-016-0116-z
Kuhn EM, Nie CL, O’Brien ME, Withers RL, Wintemute GJ, Hargarten SW (2002) Missing the target: a comparison of buyback and fatality related guns. Inj Prev 8(2):143–146. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.8.2.143
Laqueur H, Kagawa RMC, Wright M, Wintemute GJ (2019) Alcohol-related crimes and risk of arrest for intimate partner violence among california handgun purchasers. Health Aff 38(10):1719–1726. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00608
Lee WS, Suardi S (2008) The Australian Firearms buyback and its effect on gun deaths. Melbourne Institute working paper series, working paper no. 17/08. https://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/downloads/working_paper_series/wp2008n17.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2022
Leibbrand C, Rivara F, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2021) Gun violence exposure and experiences of depression among mothers. Prev Sci 22(4):523–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-020-01202-7
Lemke MK, Wolf DA, Drake SA (2022) A call for complex systems and syndemic theory in firearm violence research. Am J Prev Med 62(3):459–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.08.026
Library of Congress (2022) Constitution of the United States, Second Amendment. https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-2/. Accessed 3 May 2022
Lipsey MW, Landenberger NA, Wilson SJ (2007) Effects of cognitive-behavioral programs for criminal offenders. Campbell Syst Rev 3(1):1–27. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2007.6
Liu G, Wiebe DJ (2019) A time-series analysis of firearm purchasing after mass shooting events in the United States. JAMA Netw Open 2(4):e191736. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.1736
Lizotte AJ, Krohn MD, Howell JC, Tobin K, Howard GJ (2000) Factors influencing gun carrying among young urban males over the adolescent-young adult life course*. Criminology 38(3):811–834. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00907.x
Lösel F, Farrington DP (2012) Direct protective and buffering protective factors in the development of youth violence. Am J Prev Med 43(2 Suppl 1):S8–S23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.04.029
Lowe SR, Galea S (2017) The mental health consequences of mass shootings. Trauma Violence Abuse 18(1):62–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015591572
Lowry R, Powell KE, Kann L, Collins JL, Kolbe LJ (1998) Weapon-carrying, physical fighting, and fight-related injury among U.S. adolescents. Am J Prev Med 14(2):122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(97)00020-2
Lubin G, Werbeloff N, Halperin D, Shmushkevitch M, Weiser M, Knobler HY (2010) Decrease in suicide rates after a change of policy reducing access to firearms in adolescents: a naturalistic epidemiological study. Suicide Life Threat Behav 40(5):421–424. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.2010.40.5.421
Ludwig J, Cook PJ (2000) Homicide and suicide rates associated with implementation of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act. JAMA 284(5):585–591. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.5.585
Lyons VH, Floyd AS, Griffin E, Wang J, Hajat A, Carone M, Benkeser D, Whiteside LK, Haggerty KP, Rivara FP, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2021a) Helping individuals with firearm injuries: a cluster randomized trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 90(4):722–730. https://doi.org/10.1097/Ta.0000000000003056
Lyons VH, Haviland MJ, Azrael D, Adhia A, Bellenger MA, Ellyson A, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Rivara FP (2021b) Firearm purchasing and storage during the COVID-19 pandemic. Inj Prev 27(1):87–92. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2020-043872
Magee LA (2020) Community-level social processes and firearm shooting events: a multilevel analysis. J Urban Health 97(2):296–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00424-y
Marinho de Souza MF, Macinko J, Alencar AP, Malta DC, de Morais Neto OL (2007) Reductions in firearm-related mortality and hospitalizations in Brazil after gun control. Health Aff (Project Hope) 26(2):575–584. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.26.2.575
Marino E, Wolsko C, Keys S, Wilcox H (2018) Addressing the cultural challenges of firearm restriction in suicide prevention: a test of public health messaging to protect those at risk. Arch Suicide Res 22(3):394–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2017.1355285
Martínez-Alés G, Gimbrone C, Rutherford C, Kandula S, Olfson M, Gould MS, Shaman J, Keyes KM (2021) Role of firearm ownership on 2001–2016 trends in U.S. Firearm suicide rates. Am J Prev Med 61(6):795–803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.05.026
Masters J (2021) U.S. Gun Policy: global comparisons. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-gun-policy-global-comparisons. Accessed 3 May 2022
Matthay EC, Glymour MM (2022) Causal inference challenges and new directions for epidemiologic research on the health effects of social policies. Curr Epidemiol Rep 9(1):22–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-022-00288-7
Matthay EC, Farkas K, Rudolph KE, Zimmerman S, Barragan M, Goin DE, Ahern J (2019) Firearm and nonfirearm violence after operation peacemaker fellowship in Richmond, California, 1996–2016. Am J Public Health 109(11):1605–1611. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305288
Matthay EC, Farkas K, Goin DE, Rudolph KE, Pear VA, Ahern J (2021) Associations of firearm dealer openings with firearm self-harm deaths and injuries: a differences-in-differences analysis. PLoS One 16(3):e0248130. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248130
Mauri AI, Wolfson JA, Azrael D, Miller M (2019) Firearm storage practices and risk perceptions. Am J Prev Med 57(6):830–835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.06.017
McCauley E, Berk MS, Asarnow JR, Adrian M, Cohen J, Korslund K, Avina C, Hughes J, Harned M, Gallop R, Linehan MM (2018) Efficacy of dialectical behavior therapy for adolescents at high risk for suicide: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiat 75(8):777–785. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1109
McClellan C, Tekin E (2017) Stand your ground laws, homicides, and injuries. J Hum Resour 52(3):621–653. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.52.3.0613-5723R2
McDougal T, Shirk D, Muggah R, Patterson J (2013) The way of the gun. Estimating firearms traffic across the U.S.-Mexico border. https://catcher.sandiego.edu/items/peacestudies/way_of_the_gun.pdf. Accessed 29 Apr 2022
McGinty EE, Choksy S, Wintemute GJ (2016) The relationship between controlled substances and violence. Epidemiol Rev 38(1):5–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxv008
Metzl JM (2019) What guns mean: the symbolic lives of firearms. Palgrave Commun 5(1):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0240-y
Milam AJ, Buggs SA, Furr-Holden CDM, Leaf PJ, Bradshaw CP, Webster D (2016) Changes in attitudes toward guns and shootings following implementation of the Baltimore safe streets intervention. J Urban Health 93(4):609–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-016-0060-y
Miller M, Azrael D, Hemenway D (2002) Firearm availability and unintentional firearm deaths, suicide, and homicide among 5–14 year olds. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 52(2):267
Miller M, Azrael D, Hepburn L, Hemenway D, Lippmann SJ (2006) The association between changes in household firearm ownership and rates of suicide in the United States, 1981–2002. Inj Prev 12(3):178–182. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2005.010850
Miller M, Barber C, Azrael D, Hemenway D, Molnar BE (2009) Recent psychopathology, suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts in households with and without firearms: findings from the National Comorbidity Study Replication. Inj Prev 15(3):183–187. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2008.021352
Miller AB, Esposito-Smythers C, Weismoore JT, Renshaw KD (2013a) The relation between child maltreatment and adolescent suicidal behavior: a systematic review and critical examination of the literature. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 16(2):146–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0131-5
Miller M, Barber C, White RA, Azrael D (2013b) Firearms and suicide in the United States: is risk independent of underlying suicidal behavior? Am J Epidemiol 178(6):946–955. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwt197
Miller M, Swanson SA, Azrael D (2016) Are we missing something pertinent? A bias analysis of unmeasured confounding in the firearm-suicide literature. Epidemiol Rev 38(1):62–69. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxv011
Miller M, Zhang W, Azrael D (2021) Firearm purchasing during the COVID-19 pandemic: results from the 2021 National Firearms Survey. Ann Intern Med. https://doi.org/10.7326/m21-3423
Miller M, Zhang W, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Azrael D (2022a) Child access prevention laws and firearm storage: results from a national survey. Am J Prev Med 62(3):333–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.09.016
Miller M, Zhang Y, Prince L, Swanson SA, Wintemute GJ, Holsinger EE, Studdert DM (2022b) Suicide deaths among women in California living with handgun owners vs those living with other adults in handgun-free homes, 2004–2016. JAMA Psychiat. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0793
Mistry RS, Vandewater EA, Huston AC, McLoyd VC (2002) Economic well-being and children’s social adjustment: the role of family process in an ethnically diverse low-income sample. Child Dev 73(3):935–951. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00448
Moe CA, Haviland MJ, Bowen AG, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Rivara FP (2020) Association of minimum age laws for handgun purchase and possession with homicides perpetrated by young adults aged 18 to 20 years. JAMA Pediatr 174(11):1056. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.3182
Molnar BE, Miller MJ, Azrael D, Buka SL (2004) Neighborhood predictors of concealed firearm carrying among children and adolescents: results from the project on human development in Chicago neighborhoods. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 158(7):657–664. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.158.7.657
Morgan ER, Gomez A, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2018) Firearm ownership, storage practices, and suicide risk factors in Washington State, 2013–2016. Am J Public Health 108(7):882–888. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304403
Morrison CN, Kaufman EJ, Humphreys DK, Wiebe DJ (2021) Firearm homicide incidence, within-state firearm laws, and interstate firearm laws in US Counties. Epidemiology 32(1):36–45. https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0000000000001262
Moser CON, McIlwaine C (2006) Latin American urban violence as a development concern: towards a framework for violence reduction. World Dev 34(1):89–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.07.012
Naghavi M, Marczak LB, Kutz M, Shackelford KA, Arora M, Miller-Petrie M, Aichour MTE, Akseer N, Al-Raddadi RM, Alam K, Alghnam SA, Antonio CAT, Aremu O, Arora A, Asadi-Lari M, Assadi R, Atey TM, Avila-Burgos L, Awasthi A, Ayala Quintanilla BP, Barker-Collo SL, Bärnighausen TW, Bazargan-Hejazi S, Behzadifar M, Behzadifar M, Bennett JR, Bhalla A, Bhutta ZA, Bilal AI, Borges G, Borschmann R, Brazinova A, Campuzano Rincon JC, Carvalho F, Castañeda-Orjuela CA, Dandona L, Dandona R, Dargan PI, De Leo D, Dharmaratne SD, Ding EL, Phuc Do H, Doku DT, Doyle KE, Driscoll TR, Edessa D, El-Khatib Z, Endries AY, Esteghamati A, Faro A, Farzadfar F, Feigin VL, Fischer F, Foreman KJ, Franklin RC, Fullman N, Futran ND, Gebrehiwot TT, Gutiérrez RA, Hafezi-Nejad N, Haghparast Bidgoli H, Hailu GB, Haro JM, Hassen HY, Hawley C, Hendrie D, Híjar M, Hu G, Ilesanmi OS, Jakovljevic M, James SL, Jayaraman S, Jonas JB, Kahsay A, Kasaeian A, Keiyoro PN, Khader Y, Khalil IA, Khang Y-H, Khubchandani J, Ahmad Kiadaliri A, Kieling C, Kim YJ, Kosen S, Krohn KJ, Kumar GA, Lami FH, Lansingh VC, Larson HJ, Linn S, Lunevicius R, Magdy Abd El Razek H, Magdy Abd El Razek M, Malekzadeh R, Carvalho Malta D, Mason-Jones AJ, Matzopoulos R, Memiah PTN, Mendoza W, Meretoja TJ, Mezgebe HB, Miller TR, Mohammed S, Moradi-Lakeh M, Mori R, Nand D, Tat Nguyen C, Le Nguyen Q, Ningrum DNA, Akpojene Ogbo F, Olagunju AT, Patton GC, Phillips MR, Polinder S, Pourmalek F, Qorbani M, Rahimi-Movaghar A, Rahimi-Movaghar V, Rahman M, Rai RK, Ranabhat CL, Rawaf DL, Rawaf S, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Safdarian M, Safiri S, Sagar R, Salama JS, Sanabria J, Santric Milicevic MM, Sarmiento-Suárez R, Sartorius B, Satpathy M, Schwebel DC, Seedat S, Sepanlou SG, Shaikh MA, Sharew NT, Shiue I, Singh JA, Sisay M, Skirbekk V, Soares Filho AM, Stein DJ, Stokes MA, Sufiyan MB, Swaroop M, Sykes BL, Tabarés-Seisdedos R, Tadese F, Tran BX, Thanh Tran T, Ukwaja KN, Vasankari TJ, Vlassov V, Werdecker A, Ye P, Yip P, Yonemoto N, Younis MZ, Zaidi Z, El Sayed ZM, Hay SI, Lim SS, Lopez AD, Mokdad AH, Vos T, Murray CJL (2018) Global mortality from firearms, 1990–2016. JAMA 320(8):792–792. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.10060
Nagin DS (2020) Firearm availability and fatal police shootings. Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci 687(1):49–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219896259
National Institute for Criminal Justice Reform Stockton California, The Cost of Gun Violence, The Direct Cost to Tax Payers
National Network of Hospital-based Violence Intervention Programs (2022) Hospital-based violence intervention: practices and policies to end the cycle of violence. Policy White paper. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5d6f61730a2b610001135b79/t/5d83c0d9056f4d4cbdb9acd9/1568915699707/NNHVIP+White+Paper.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2022
New York State Department of Labor Gun Violence Prevention Initiative. Department of Labor
Ngo QM, Sigel E, Moon A, Stein SF, Massey LS, Rivara F, King C, Ilgen M, Cunningham R, Walton MA, For the FC (2019) State of the science: a scoping review of primary prevention of firearm injuries among children and adolescents. J Behav Med 42(4):811–829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00043-2
NORC (2021) Improving data infrastructure to reduce firearms violence. https://www.norc.org/NewsEventsPublications/PressReleases/Pages/improving-data-infrastructure-to-reduce-firearms-violence.aspx. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
NPR (2021) Mexico Sues U.S. Gun manufacturers for contributing to arms trafficking deaths. https://www.npr.org/2021/08/05/1025011396/mexico-sues-u-s-gun-manufacturers-for-contributing-to-arms-trafficking-deaths. Accessed 3 May 2022
Olfson M, Cosgrove CM, Wall MM, Blanco C (2020) Sociodemographic factors associated with high risk for firearm suicide among US adults. JAMA Intern Med 180(7):1014–1019. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.1334
Osborne MC, Self-Brown S, Lai BS (2021) Child maltreatment, suicidal ideation, and in-home firearm availability in the U.S.: findings from the longitudinal studies of child abuse and neglect. Int J Injury Control Safe Promot 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457300.2021.1996397
Owens D, Horrocks J, House A (2002) Fatal and non-fatal repetition of self-harm. Systematic review. Br J Psychiatry J Ment Sci 181:193–199. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.181.3.193
Pallin R, Siry B, Azrael D, Knoepke CE, Matlock DD, Clement A, Ranney ML, Wintemute GJ, Betz ME (2019a) “Hey, let me hold your guns for a while”: a qualitative study of messaging for firearm suicide prevention. Behav Sci Law 37(3):259–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2393
Pallin R, Spitzer SA, Ranney ML, Betz ME, Wintemute GJ (2019b) Preventing firearm-related death and injury. Ann Intern Med 170(11):ITC81–ITC96. https://doi.org/10.7326/AITC201906040
Palmer C, Phillips DC, Sullivan JX (2019) Does emergency financial assistance reduce crime? J Public Econ 169:34–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.10.012
Parker ST (2022) Measuring gun violence in police data sources: transitioning to NIBRS. Inj Epidemiol 9(1):15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-022-00376-8
Parsons C (2018) Center for American Progress. Beyond our borders: how weak U.S. Gun Laws contribute to violent crime abroad. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/beyond-our-borders/. Accessed 29 Apr 2022
Pear VA, McCort CD, Kravitz-Wirtz N, Shev AB, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Wintemute GJ (2020) Risk factors for assaultive reinjury and death following a nonfatal firearm assault injury: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Prev Med 139:106198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106198
Pérez Ricart CA, Castillo J, Curry A, Serrano M (2021) Guns in Latin America: key challenges from the most violent region on Earth. In: Pérez Esparza D, Ricart CAP, Weigend Vargas E (eds) Gun trafficking and violence: from the global network to the local security challenge. St Antony’s series. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 93–122
Peters AW, Yorlets RR, Shrime MG, Alkire BC (2019) Macroeconomic burden of firearm-related fatality across OECD countries: an estimate of annual and cumulative gross domestic product losses, 2018–30. Lancet Glob Health 7:S36–S36. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109x(19)30121-4
Phillips JA (2012) Factors associated with temporal and spatial patterns in suicide rates across U.S. States, 1976–2000. Demography 50(2):591–614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0176-y
Pickett W, Craig W, Harel Y, Cunningham J, Simpson K, Molcho M, Mazur J, Dostaler S, Overpeck MD, Currie CE, Violence H, Injuries Writing G (2005) Cross-national study of fighting and weapon carrying as determinants of adolescent injury. Pediatrics 116(6):e855–e863. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0607
Pinto IV, Ribeiro AP, Santos APD, Bevilacqua P, Lachtim SAF, Pereira VODM, Malta DC (2020) Adolescências feridas: retrato das violências com arma de fogo notificadas no Brasil. Rev Bras Epidemiol 23(Suppl 1). https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720200002.supl.1
Poulson M, Neufeld MY, Dechert T, Allee L, Kenzik KM (2021) Historic redlining, structural racism, and firearm violence: a structural equation modeling approach. Lancet Reg Health – Am 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2021.100052
Public Law (1996) Unied States omnibus consolidated appropriations for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1997. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/pdf/PLAW-104publ208.pdf. Accessed 5 May 2020
Ramchand R, Saunders J (2021) The effects of the 1996 National Firearms Agreement in Australia on suicide, homicide, and mass shootings. In: Ramchand, R, Saunders, J (eds) contemporary issues in gun policy: essays from the rand gun policy in america project. Santa Monica, California: RAND corporation, RR-A243-2, pp 43–65
Ramratnam SK, Han Y-Y, Rosas-Salazar C, Forno E, Brehm JM, Rosser F, Marsland AL, Colón-Semidey A, Alvarez M, Miller GE, Acosta-Pérez E, Canino G, Celedón JC (2015) Exposure to gun violence and asthma among children in Puerto Rico. Respir Med 109(8):975–981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2015.05.011
RAND (2020) State-level estimates of household firearm ownership. https://www.rand.org/pubs/tools/TL354.html. Accessed 29 Apr 2022
RAND Corporation (2018a) The relationship between firearm availability and suicide. RAND Corporation. Santa Monica, CA
RAND Corporation (2018b) The relationship between firearm prevalence and violent crime. RAND Corporation. Santa Monica, CA
RAND Corporation (2020) Effects of concealed-carry laws on violent crime. RAND Corporation
Ranney ML, Herges C, Metcalfe L, Schuur JD, Hain P, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2020) Increases in actual health care costs and claims after firearm injury. Ann Intern Med 173(12):949–955. https://doi.org/10.7326/M20-0323
Rehkopf DH, Basu S (2018) A new tool for case studies in epidemiology – the synthetic control method. Epidemiology 29(4):503–505. https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0000000000000837
Reisch T, Steffen T, Habenstein A, Tschacher W (2013) Change in suicide rates in Switzerland before and after firearm restriction resulting from the 2003 “Army XXI” reform. Am J Psychiatry 170(9):977–984. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12091256
Resnick MD, Ireland M, Borowsky I (2004) Youth violence perpetration: what protects? What predicts? Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. J Adolesc Health 35(5):424.e421–424.e410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.01.011
Reyes JC, Robles RR, Colón HM, Negrón J, Matos TD, Calderón J, Pérez OM (2008) Neighborhood disorganization, substance use, and violence among adolescents in Puerto Rico. J Interpers Violence 23(11):1499–1512. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508314311
Reynolds AJ, Temple JA, Robertson DL, Mann EA (2001) Long-term effects of an early childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest: a 15-year follow-up of low-income children in public schools. JAMA 285(18):2339–2346. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.18.2339
Richards R (2017) The role of interest groups and group interests on gun legislation in the U.S. House*. Soc Sci Q 98(2):471–484. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12424
Richardson JB, St Vil C, Sharpe T, Wagner M, Cooper C (2016) Risk factors for recurrent violent injury among Black men. J Surg Res 204(1):261–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2016.04.027
Romero A, Bauman S, Ritter M, Anand P (2017) Examining adolescent suicidal behaviors in relation to gun carrying and bullying. J Sch Violence 16(4):445–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2016.1190933
Romero AJ, Bauman S, Borgstrom M, Kim SE (2018) Examining suicidality, bullying, and gun carrying among Latina/o youth over 10 years. Am J Orthopsychiatry 88(4):450–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000323
Rosenfeld R, Baumer E, Messner SF (2007) Social trust, firearm prevalence, and Homicide. Ann Epidemiol 17(2):119–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2006.07.016
Rossow I, Norström T (2012) The impact of small changes in bar closing hours on violence. The Norwegian experience from 18 cities. Addiction 107(3):530–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03643.x
Rothman KJ (1976) Causes. Am J Epidemiol 104(6):587–592. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112335
Rowhani-Rahbar A, Fan MD, Simonetti JA, Lyons VH, Wang J, Zatzick D, Rivara FP (2016a) Violence perpetration among patients hospitalized for unintentional and assault-related firearm injury. Ann Intern Med 165(12):841–847. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-1596
Rowhani-Rahbar A, Simonetti JA, Rivara FP (2016b) Effectiveness of interventions to promote safe firearm storage. Epidemiol Rev 38(1):111–124. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxv006
Rowhani-Rahbar A, Bellenger MA, Rivara FP (2019a) Firearm violence research improving availability, accessibility, and content of firearm-related data systems. JAMA 322(19):1857–1858. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.16286
Rowhani-Rahbar A, Quistberg DA, Morgan ER, Hajat A, Rivara FP (2019b) Income inequality and firearm homicide in the US: a county-level cohort study. Inj Prev 25(Suppl 1):i25–i30. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2018-043080
Rowhani-Rahbar A, Zatzick DF, Rivara FP (2019c) Long-lasting consequences of gun violence and mass shootings. JAMA 321(18):1765–1766. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.5063
Rowhani-Rahbar A, Schleimer JP, Moe CA, Rivara FP, Hill HD (2022) Income support policies and firearm violence prevention: a scoping review. Prev Med 107133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107133
Rozel JS, Mulvey EP (2017) The link between mental illness and firearm violence: implications for social policy and clinical practice. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 13(1):445–469. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093459
Sadatsafavi H, Sachs NA, Shepley MM, Kondo MC, Barankevich RA (2022) Vacant lot remediation and firearm violence – a meta-analysis and benefit-to-cost evaluation. Landsc Urban Plan 218:104281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104281
Salhi C, Azrael D, Miller M (2021) Patterns of gun owner beliefs about firearm risk in relation to firearm storage: a latent class analysis using the 2019 National Firearms Survey. Inj Prev 27(3):271–276. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043624
Sampson RJ (1986) The contribution of homicide to the decline of American cities. Bull N Y Acad Med 62(5):562–569
Sampson RJ (2003) The neighborhood context of well-being. Perspect Biol Med 46(3 Suppl):S53–S64
Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F (1997) Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 277(5328):918–924. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918
Sánchez ÁI, Villaveces A, Krafty RT, Park T, Weiss HB, Fabio A, Puyana JC, Gutiérrez MI (2011) Policies for alcohol restriction and their association with interpersonal violence: a time-series analysis of homicides in Cali, Colombia. Int J Epidemiol 40(4):1037–1046. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyr051
Sanguinetti P, Ortega D, Berniell L, Álvarez F, Mejía D, Castillo JC, Brassiolo P (2015) Towards a safer Latin America. A new perspective to prevent and control crime. CAF, Bogotá
Santaella-Tenorio J, Cerdá M, Villaveces A, Galea S (2016) What do we know about the association between firearm legislation and firearm-related injuries? Epidemiol Rev 38(1):140–157. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxv012
Schell TL, Cefalu M, Griffin BA, Smart R, Morral AR (2020) Changes in firearm mortality following the implementation of state laws regulating firearm access and use. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117(26):14906–14910. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1921965117
Schell TL, Smart R, Morral AR (2022) Suggestions for estimating the effects of state gun policies: commentary on four methodological problems in the current literature. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica. https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA243-1
Schleimer JP, Kagawa RMC, Laqueur HS (2021a) Handgun purchasing characteristics and firearm suicide risk: a nested case–control study. Inj Epidemiol 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-021-00365-3
Schleimer JP, Wright MA, Shev AB, Mccort CD, Asif-Sattar R, Sohl S, Stewart SL, Wintemute GJ, Kagawa RMC (2021b) Alcohol and drug offenses and suicide risk among men who purchased a handgun in California: a cohort study. Prev Med 153:106821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106821
Schmidt CJ, Rupp L, Pizarro JM, Lee DB, Branas CC, Zimmerman MA (2019) Risk and protective factors related to youth firearm violence: a scoping review and directions for future research. J Behav Med 42(4):706–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00076-7
Shah S, Hoffman RE, Wake L, Marine WM (2000) Adolescent suicide and household access to firearms in Colorado: results of a case-control study. J Adolesc Health 26(3):157–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(99)00064-6
Sharkey PT, Tirado-Strayer N, Papachristos AV, Raver CC (2012) The effect of local violence on children’s attention and impulse control. Am J Public Health 102(12):2287–2293. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300789
Sharkey P, Torrats-Espinosa G, Takyar D (2017) Community and the crime decline: the causal effect of local nonprofits on violent crime. Am Sociol Rev 82(6):1214–1240. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417736289
Simckes MS, Simonetti JA, Moreno MA, Rivara FP, Oudekerk BA, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2017) Access to a loaded gun without adult permission and school-based bullying. J Adolesc Health 61(3):329–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.03.022
Skogan WG (1992) Disorder and decline: crime and the spiral of decay in American neighborhoods. University of California Press, Berkeley
Small Arms Survey (2022). https://www.smallarmssurvey.org/. Accessed 29 Apr 2022
Smart R, Morral A, Smucker S, Cherney S, Schell T, Peterson S, Ahluwalia S, Cefalu M, Xenakis L, Ramchand R, Gresenz C (2020a) The science of gun policy: a critical synthesis of research evidence on the effects of gun policies in the United States, 2nd edn. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2088-1.html. Accessed 4 May 2020
Smart R, Morral AR, Smucker S, Cherney S, Schell TL, Peterson S, Ahluwalia SC, Cefalu M, Xenakis L, Ramchand R, Gresenz CR (2020b) The science of gun policy: a critical synthesis of research evidence on the effects of gun policies in the United States, 2nd edn. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica
Smith T, Davern M, Freese J (2018) General social surveys, 1972–2018. NORC at the University of Chicago, Chicago. https://gssdataexplorer.norc.org/. Accessed 30 Apr 2022
Sokol RL, Zimmerman MA, Rupp L, Heinze JE, Cunningham RM, Carter PM (2021) Firearm purchasing during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in households with teens: a national study. J Behav Med. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-021-00242-w
Song Z, Zubizarreta JR, Giuriato M, Paulos E, Koh KA (2022) Changes in health care spending, use, and clinical outcomes after nonfatal firearm injuries among survivors and family members: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med. https://doi.org/10.7326/M21-2812
South EC, Hohl BC, Kondo MC, MacDonald JM, Branas CC (2018) Effect of greening vacant land on mental health of community-dwelling adults: a cluster randomized trial. JAMA Netw Open 1(3):e180298. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0298
Spano R, Pridemore WA, Bolland J (2012) Specifying the role of exposure to violence and violent behavior on initiation of gun carrying: a longitudinal test of three models of youth gun carrying. J Interpers Violence 27(1):158–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511416471
Spicer RS, Miller TR (2000) Suicide acts in 8 states: incidence and case fatality rates by demographics and method. Am J Public Health 90(12):1885–1891
Stack S (2000) Suicide: a 15-year review of the sociological literature. Part I: cultural and economic factors. Suicide Life Threat Behav 30(2):145–162
Stansfield R, Semenza D, Steidley T (2021) Public guns, private violence: the association of city-level firearm availability and intimate partner homicide in the United States. Prev Med 148:106599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106599
Stark DE, Shah NH (2017a) Funding and publication of research on gun violence and other leading causes of death. JAMA 317(1):84–85. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.16215
Stark DE, Shah NH (2017b) Research on gun violence vs other causes of death. JAMA 317(13):1379. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.2440
Steelesmith DL, Fontanella CA, Campo JV, Bridge JA, Warren KL, Root ED (2019) Contextual factors associated with county-level suicide rates in the United States, 1999 to 2016. JAMA Netw Open 2(9):e1910936. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.10936
Stene LE, Dyb G (2015) Health service utilization after terrorism: a longitudinal study of survivors of the 2011 Utøya attack in Norway. BMC Health Serv Res 15:158. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-015-0811-6
Stohl R, Tuttle D (2008) The small arms trade in Latin America. NACLA Rep Am 41:14–20
Studdert DM, Zhang Y, Swanson SA, Prince L, Rodden JA, Holsinger EE, Spittal MJ, Wintemute GJ, Miller M (2020) Handgun ownership and suicide in California. N Engl J Med 382(23):2220–2229. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1916744
Studdert DM, Zhang Y, Holsinger EE, Prince L, Holsinger AF, Rodden JA, Wintemute GJ, Miller M (2022) Homicide deaths among adult cohabitants of handgun owners in California, 2004 to 2016. Ann Intern Med. https://doi.org/10.7326/M21-3762
Swanson JW, McGinty EE, Fazel S, Mays VM (2015a) Mental illness and reduction of gun violence and suicide: bringing epidemiologic research to policy. Ann Epidemiol 25(5):366–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2014.03.004
Swanson JW, Sampson NA, Petukhova MV, Zaslavsky AM, Appelbaum PS, Swartz MS, Kessler RC (2015b) Guns, impulsive angry behavior, and mental disorders: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Behav Sci Law 33(2–3):199–212. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2172
Swanson J, Norko M, Lin H-J, Alanis-Hirsch K, Frisman L, Baranoski M, Easter M, Robertson A, Swartz M, Bonnie R (2017) Implementation and effectiveness of Connecticut’s risk-based gun removal law: does it prevent suicides? Law Contemp Probl 80(2):179–208
Swanson JW, Easter MM, Alanis-Hirsch K, Belden CM, Norko MA, Robertson AG, Frisman LK, Lin H-J, Swartz MS, Parker GF (2019) Criminal justice and suicide outcomes with Indiana’s risk-based gun seizure law. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 47(2):188–197. https://doi.org/10.29158/JAAPL.003835-19
Swanson SA, Eyllon M, Sheu Y-H, Miller M (2021) Firearm access and adolescent suicide risk: toward a clearer understanding of effect size. Inj Prev 27(3):264–270. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043605
Tavernise S (2021) An arms race in America: gun buying spiked during the pandemic. It’s still up. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/29/us/gun-purchases-ownership-pandemic.html. Accessed 30 Apr 2022
Tennant PWG, Murray EJ, Arnold KF, Berrie L, Fox MP, Gadd SC, Harrison WJ, Keeble C, Ranker LR, Textor J, Tomova GD, Gilthorpe MS, Ellison GTH (2021) Use of directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) to identify confounders in applied health research: review and recommendations. Int J Epidemiol 50(2):620–632. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyaa213
Teplin LA, Meyerson NS, Jakubowski JA, Aaby DA, Zheng N, Abram KM, Welty LJ (2021) Association of firearm access, use, and victimization during adolescence with firearm perpetration during adulthood in a 16-year longitudinal study of youth involved in the Juvenile Justice System. JAMA Netw Open 4(2):e2034208. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.34208
Tessler RA, Haviland MJ, Bowen A, Bowen D, Rivara FP, Rowhani-Rahbar A (2021) Association of state-level intoxicated driving laws with firearm homicide and suicide. Inj Prev. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2020-044052
The Associated Press (2021) Mexico Sues U.S. Gun manufacturers for contributing to arms trafficking deaths. NPR, 2021/08/05/T02:52:00-04:00
The Hill (2019) Congress reaches deal to fund gun violence research for first time in decades. https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/474740-25m-set-aside-for-gun-violence-research-in-spending-agreement-in-win-for/. Accessed 5 May 2022
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (2017) Community violence https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/community-violence. Accessed 29 Apr 2022
Tracy M, Braga AA, Papachristos AV (2016) The transmission of gun and other weapon-involved violence within social networks. Epidemiol Rev 38(1):70–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxv009
Turner MG, Phillips MD, Tigri HB, Williams MA, Hartman JL (2016) On the association between repeat bully victimizations and carrying a firearm: evidence in a national sample. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 60(8):871–896. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X15573547
UK Trauma Audit and Research Network (2022). https://www.tarn.ac.uk/. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
United Nations (2001) General Assembly. Protocol against the illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms, their parts and components and ammunition, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. A/RES55/255. General Assembly of the United Nations. https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/docs/A_RES_55_255-E.pdf. Accessed 3 May 2022
United Nations (2022a) Institute for Disarmament Research. https://unidir.org/commentary/comprehensive-strategies-reduce-urban-violence-latin-america. Accessed 3 May 2022
United Nations (2022b) Sustainable Development, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. https://sdgs.un.org/goals. Accessed 4 May 2022
United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (2022) Small arms and light weapons. https://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/salw/. Accessed 29 Apr 2022
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2015) International classification of crime for statistical purposes. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/doc15/BG-ICCS-UNODC.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2020) Global study on firearms 2020. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Vienna, Austria
Vandoros S, Kawachi I (2021) Economic uncertainty and suicide in the United States. Eur J Epidemiol 36(6):641–647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-021-00770-4
Vaughn MG, Perron BE, Abdon A, Olate R, Groom R, Wu L-T (2012) Correlates of handgun carrying among adolescents in the United States. J Interpers Violence 27(10):2003–2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511432150
Vecino-Ortiz AI, Guzman-Tordecilla DN (2020) Gun-carrying restrictions and gun-related mortality, Colombia: a difference-in-difference design with fixed effects. Bull World Health Organ 98(3):170–176. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.19.236646
Vella MA, Warshauer A, Tortorello G, Fernandez-Moure J, Giacolone J, Chen B, Cabulong A, Chreiman K, Sims C, Schwab CW, Reilly PM, Lane-Fall M, Seamon MJ (2020) Long-term functional, psychological, emotional, and social outcomes in survivors of firearm injuries. JAMA Surg 155(1):51–59. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2019.4533
Vernick JS, Rutkow L, Webster DW, Teret SP (2011) Changing the constitutional landscape for firearms: the US Supreme Court’s recent second amendment decisions. Am J Public Health 101(11):2021–2026. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2011.300200
Villaveces A, Cummings P, Espitia VE, Koepsell TD, McKnight B, Kellermann AL (2000) Effect of a ban on carrying firearms on homicide rates in 2 Colombian cities. JAMA 283(9):1205–1209. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.9.1205
Webster DW, Freed LH, Frattaroli S, Wilson MH (2002a) How delinquent youths acquire guns: initial versus most recent gun acquisitions. J Urban Health 79(1):60–69. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/79.1.60
Webster DW, Vernick JS, Hepburn LM (2002b) Effects of Maryland’s law banning “Saturday night special” handguns on homicides. Am J Epidemiol 155(5):406–412. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/155.5.406
Webster DW, Vernick JS, Bulzacchelli MT (2006) Effects of a gun dealer’s change in sales practices on the supply of guns to criminals. J Urban Health 83(5):778–787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-006-9073-2
Webster DW, Buggs SAL, Crifasi CK (2018) Estimating the effects of law enforcement and public health interventions intended to reduce gun violence in Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and Research. Baltimore, MD
Webster D, Crifasi C, Williams R (2020) Reducing violence and building trust: data to guide enforcement of gun laws in Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and Research. Baltimore, MD
Wei E, Hipwell A, Pardini D, Beyers JM, Loeber R (2005) Block observations of neighbourhood physical disorder are associated with neighbourhood crime, firearm injuries and deaths, and teen births. J Epidemiol Community Health 59(10):904–908. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2004.027060
Werbick M, Bari I, Paichadze N, Hyder AA (2021) Firearm violence: a neglected “Global Health” issue. Glob Health 17(1):120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-021-00771-8
Wertz J, Azrael D, Hemenway D, Sorenson S, Miller M (2018) Differences between new and long-standing US gun owners: results from a national survey. Am J Public Health 108(7):871–877. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304412
WHO Mortality Database (2022). https://www.who.int/data/data-collection-tools/who-mortality-database. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Wiebe DJ (2003) Homicide and suicide risks associated with firearms in the home: a national case-control study. Ann Emerg Med 41(6):771–782. https://doi.org/10.1067/mem.2003.187
Williams NE (2013) How community organizations moderate the effect of armed conflict on migration in Nepal. Popul Stud 67(3):353–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2012.754927
Wintemute GJ (2011) Association between firearm ownership, firearm-related risk and risk reduction behaviours and alcohol-related risk behaviours. Inj Prev 17(6):422–427. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2010.031443
Wintemute GJ (2015) Alcohol misuse, firearm violence perpetration, and public policy in the United States. Prev Med 79:15–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.04.015
Wintemute GJ (2019) Background checks for firearm purchases: problem areas and recommendations to improve effectiveness. Health Aff 38(10):1702–1710. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00671
Wintemute GJ (2021) Guns, violence, politics: the gyre widens. Inj Epidemiol 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-021-00357-3
Wintemute GJ, Drake CM, Beaumont JJ, Wright MA, Parham CA (1998) Prior misdemeanor convictions as a risk factor for later violent and firearm-related criminal activity among authorized purchasers of handguns. JAMA 280(24):2083–2087. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.24.2083
Wintemute GJ, Parham CA, Beaumont JJ, Wright M, Drake C (1999) Mortality among recent purchasers of handguns. N Engl J Med 341(21):1583–1589. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199911183412106
Wintemute GJ, Wright MA, Drake CM, Beaumont JJ (2001) Subsequent criminal activity among violent misdemeanants who seek to purchase handguns: risk factors and effectiveness of denying handgun purchase. JAMA 285(8):1019–1026. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.8.1019
Wintemute GJ, Pear VA, Schleimer JP, Pallin R, Sohl S, Kravitz-Wirtz N, Tomsich EA (2019) Extreme risk protection orders intended to prevent mass shootings. Ann Intern Med 171(9):655–658. https://doi.org/10.7326/M19-2162
Wintemute GJ, Aubel AJ, Pallin R, Schleimer JP, Kravitz-Wirtz N (2022) Experiences of violence in daily life among adults in California: a population-representative survey. Inj Epidemiol 9(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-021-00367-1
Wolf AM, Lipman ADP, Boggan D, Glesmann C, Castro E (2015) Saving lives: alternative approaches to reducing gun violence. Int Sci Index 9:6
World Health Organization (2002) World report on violence and health. World Health Organization, Geneva
World Health Organization (2018) WHO methods and data sources for country-level causes of death, 2000–2016. https://terrance.who.int/mediacentre/data/ghe/healthinfo/Deaths/GHE2016_COD_methods.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
World Health Organization (2022) International classification of diseases. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/injury/injury_matrices.htm. Accessed 28 Apr 2022
Wright MA, Wintemute GJ, Rivara FP (1999) Effectiveness of denial of handgun purchase to persons believed to be at high risk for firearm violence. Am J Public Health 89(1):88–90
Zeoli AM, Webster DW (2010) Effects of domestic violence policies, alcohol taxes and police staffing levels on intimate partner homicide in large U.S. Cities. Inj Prev 16(2):90–95. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2009.024620
Zeoli AM, Goldstick J, Mauri A, Wallin M, Goyal M, Cunningham R, Consortium F (2019) The association of firearm laws with firearm outcomes among children and adolescents: a scoping review. J Behav Med 42(4):741–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00063-y
Zimmerman GM, Messner SF (2013) Individual, family background, and contextual explanations of racial and ethnic disparities in youths’ exposure to violence. Am J Public Health 103(3):435–442. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300931
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this entry
Cite this entry
Rowhani-Rahbar, A., Schleimer, J.P. (2022). Gun Violence Epidemiology. In: Ahrens, W., Pigeot, I. (eds) Handbook of Epidemiology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6625-3_77-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6625-3_77-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-6625-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-6625-3
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine