Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parental Age, Birth Weight, and Autism Spectrum Disorders

  • Reference work entry
Comprehensive Guide to Autism

  • 321 Accesses

Abstract

The dramatic increase in ASD diagnosis in recent years cannot be solely explained by broadening of the diagnostic concept. In addition, despite the strong genetic origin, the exact cause of ASD is still unknown. It is therefore suggested that nonheritable prenatal and perinatal events may be risk factors for ASD.

Most of the studies that examined advanced paternal age as a risk factor found an increased risk for ASD with increasing paternal age. Several studies described maternal age as a risk factor for ASD as well, but results are more conflicting between studies. The biological mechanisms underlying the relationship between advanced parental ages and autism are still unknown. The increased risk for ASD in older fathers supports the hypothesis of increasing de novo mutations with age. The independent effect of maternal age may point to increased prevalence of chromosomal aberrations or to increased rate of pregnancy complications in older mothers. Other explanations to the relations of advanced parental age and ASD are discussed.

Low birth weight with or without prematurity is a risk factor for many neurodevelopmental disorders, including cerebral palsy and mental retardation. Inconsistent results were documented regarding low birth weight (<2,500 g) and very low birth weight (<1,500 g) as risk factors for ASD. The association between ASD and LBW might be mediated by several prenatal or neonatal factors, such as maternal age and health conditions, nutrition deficits hypoxia, and other obstetrical insults that were described in association with prematurity and LBW.

Another important question is whether these risk factors are related to the clinical phenotype in ASD. Regarding parental age, although it might be a risk factor for ASD, it was not related to the severity of ASD symptoms or to the adaptive functioning. Regarding LBW, children with ASD who had a history of very low birth weight (<1,500 g.) did show more deficits in adaptive skills but not in autism symptoms severity in comparison to those without a history of poor fetal growth. More research is needed to examine the relation between environmental risk factors, ASD, and clinical phenotypes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 1,199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 1,299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Amaral DG, Schumann CM, Nordahl CW. Neuroanatomy of autism. Trends Neurosci. 2008;31(3):137–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV). 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anagnostou E, Taylor MJ. Review of neuroimaging in autism spectrum disorders: what have we learned and where we go from here. Mol Autism. 2011;2:4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Itzchak E, Lahat E, Zachor D. Advanced parental ages and low birth weight in autism spectrum disorder- rates and effect on functioning. Res Dev Disabil. 2011;32:1776–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bilder D, Pinborough-Zimmerman J, Miller J, et al. Prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal factors associated with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2009;123:1293–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brimacombe M, Ming X, Lamendola M. Prenatal and birth complications in autism. Matern Child Health J. 2007;11:73–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burd L, Severud R, Kerbeshian J, et al. Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism. J Perinat Med. 1999;27:441–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • CDC. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders – autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, United States, 2006. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2009;58:1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croen LA, Najjar DV, Fireman B, et al. Maternal and paternal age and risk of autism spectrum disorders. Arch Ped Adol Med. 2007;161(334).

    Google Scholar 

  • Croen LA, Yoshida CK, Odouli R, Newman TB. Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and risk of autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e135–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crow JF. Spontaneous mutation as a risk factor. Exp Clin Immunogen. 1995;12:121–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durkin MS, Maenner MJ, Newschaffer CJ, et al. Advanced parental age and the risk of autism spectrum disorder. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168(11):1268–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton WW, Mortensen PB, Thomsen PH, et al. Obstetric complications and risk for severe psychopathology in childhood. J Autism Dev Dis. 2001;31:279–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fein D, Stevens M, Dunn M, et al. Subtypes of pervasive developmental disorder: clinical characteristics. Child Neuropsychol. 1999;5:1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL. Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis. Brit J Psychiat. 2009;195:7–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, Goepfert AR, et al. The Alabama preterm birth study: umbilical cord blood ureaplasma urealyticum and mycoplasma hominis cultures in very preterm newborn infants. Am J Obst Gynecol. 2008;198(43):e1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grether JK, Anderson MC, Croen LA, et al. Risk of autism and increasing maternal and paternal age in a large North American population. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170:1118–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guinchat V, Thorsen P, Laurent C, et al. Pre-, peri- and neonatal risk factors for autism. Acta Obstet Gyn Scan. 2012;91:287–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hack M, Taylor HG, Schluchter M, et al. Behavioral outcomes of extremely low birth weight children at age 8 years. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2009;30:122–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haglund NG, Källén K. Risk factors for autism and asperger syndrome: perinatal factors and migration. Autism. 2011;15:163–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hultman CM, Sparén P, Cnattingius S. Perinatal risk factors for infantile autism. Epidemiology. 2002;13:417–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hultman CM, Sandin S, Levine S, et al. Advancing paternal age and risk of autism: new evidence from a population-based study and a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Mol Psychiatr. 2011;16:1203–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Indredavik MS, Vik T, Heyerdahl S, et al. Psychiatric symptoms and disorders in adolescents with low birth weight. Arch Dis Child. 2004;89:F445–50. Fetal and Neonatal Edition.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson EO, Breslau N. Increased risk of learning disabilities in low birth weight boys at age 11 years. Biol Psychiat. 2000;47(6):490–500. 15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson CP, Myers SM. American academy of pediatrics council on children with disabilities. Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2007;120:1183–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Juul-Dam N, Townsend J, Courchesne E. Prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal factors in autism, pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified, and the general population. Pediatrics. 2001;107(4):E63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karmel B, Gardner JM, Meade LS, et al. Early medical and behavioral characteristics of NICU infants later classified with ASD. Pediatrics. 2010;126:457–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King MD, Fountain C, Dakhlallah D, et al. Estimated autism risk and older reproductive age. Am J Public Health. 2009;99(9):1673–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klauck SM. Genetics of autism spectrum disorder. Eur J Hum Genet. 2006;14:714–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolevzon A, Gross R, Reichenberg A. Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism- a review and integration of findings. Arch Pediat Adol Med. 2007;161:326–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuban KC, O’Shea TM, Allred EN, et al. Positive screening on the modified checklist for autism in toddlers (M-CHAT) in extremely low gestational age newborns. J Pediatr. 2009;154:535–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lampi KM, Lehtonen L, Tran PL, et al. Risk of autism spectrum disorders in low birth weight and small for gestational age infants. J Pediatr. 2012;161:830–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larsson HJ, Eaton WW, Madsen KM, et al. Risk factors for autism: perinatal factors, parental psychiatric history, and socioeconomic status. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;161(10):916–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Losh M, Esserman D, Anckarsater H, et al. Lower birth weight indicates higher risk of autistic traits in discordant twin pairs. Psychol Med. 2012;42:1091–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mann JR, McDermott S, Bao H, et al. Pre-eclampsia, birth weight, and autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Dis. 2010;40:548–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parner ET, Baron-Cohen S, Lauristen MB, et al. Parental age and autism spectrum disorders. Ann Epidemiol. 2012;22:143–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandin S, Hultman CM, Kolvezon A, et al. Advancing maternal age is associated with increasing risk for autism: a review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Child Psy. 2012;51(5):477–86. e1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sasanfar R, Haddad SA, Tolouei A, et al. Paternal age increases the risk for autism in an Iranian population sample. Mol Autism. 2010;1:2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaaf CP, Zoghbi HY. Solving the autism puzzle a few pieces at a time. Neuron. 2011;70:806–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schendel D, Bashin TK. Birth weight and gestational age characteristics of children with autism, including a comparison with other developmental disabilities. Pediatrics. 2008;121:1155–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton JF, Tancredi DJ, Hertz-Picciotto I. Independent and dependent contributions of advanced maternal and paternal ages to autism risk. Autism Res. 2010;3(1):30–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shimada T, Kitamoto A, Todokoro A, et al. Parental age and assisted reproductive technology in autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and Tourette syndrome in a Japanese population. Res Autism Spect Dis. 2012;6(1):500–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skranes J, Vangberg TR, Kulseng S, et al. Clinical findings and white matter abnormalities seen on diffusion tensor imaging in adolescents with very low birth weight. Brain. 2007;130:654–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veen S, Ens-Dokkum MH, Schreuder AM, et al. Impairments, disabilities, and handicaps in low-birthweight babies. Lancet. 1991;338(8773):1011–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Cook EH. Molecular genetics of autism spectrum disorder. Mol Psychiatr. 2004;9:819–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams K, Helmer M, Duncan GW, et al. Perinatal and maternal risk factors for autism spectrum disorders in New South Australia Wales. Child Care Hlth Dev. 2008;34:249–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang X, Lv CC, Tian J, et al. Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism in China. J Autism Dev Dis. 2010;40:1311–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Communication Disorders, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel

    Esther Ben-Itzchak

  2. The Autism Center, Assaf Harofeh Medical Center, Zerifin, Israel

    Ditza A. Zachor

Authors
  1. Esther Ben-Itzchak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ditza A. Zachor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Esther Ben-Itzchak .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Westminster, Faculty of Science & Technology, London, United Kingdom

    Vinood B. Patel

  2. Nutritional Sciences Division and Genomics Centre, King's College London, London, United Kingdom

    Victor R. Preedy

  3. Faculty of Society and Health, Buckinghamshire New University, Middlesex, United Kingdom

    Colin R. Martin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this entry

Cite this entry

Ben-Itzchak, E., Zachor, D.A. (2014). Parental Age, Birth Weight, and Autism Spectrum Disorders. In: Patel, V., Preedy, V., Martin, C. (eds) Comprehensive Guide to Autism. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_85

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_85

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-4787-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-4788-7

  • eBook Packages: Behavioral Science

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation