Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hypercholesterolemia and Dyslipidemia

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Pediatric and Congenital Cardiology, Cardiac Surgery and Intensive Care

  • 579 Accesses

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a process that begins in children and is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in adults. The pathologic findings include lipid deposits and inflammation in the arterial wall. Strong correlations between CVD risk factors, including dyslipidemias in childhood, have been made with atherosclerosis. The recent obesity epidemic and increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents reflect the prevailing pattern of high triglycerides and low HDL seen in this population. Appropriate identification of dyslipidemias in children and treatment may help reduce their CVD risk as adults.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 1,299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 1,799.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index.html

  2. Enos MWF, Holmes LCRH, Beyer CJ (1953) Coronary disease among United States soldiers killed in action in Korea. JAMA 152(12):1090–1093

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. McNamara JJ et al (1971) Coronary artery disease in combat casualties in Vietnam. JAMA 216(7):1185–1187

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Napoli C et al (1997) Fatty streak formation occurs in human fetal aortas and is greatly enhanced by maternal hypercholesterolemia. Intimal accumulation of low density lipoprotein and its oxidation precede monocyte recruitment into early atherosclerotic lesions. J Clin Invest 100(11):2680–2690

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Napoli C et al (1999) Influence of maternal hypercholesterolaemia during pregnancy on progression of early atherosclerotic lesions in childhood: fate of early lesions in children (FELIC) study. Lancet 354(9186):1234–1241

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Stary HC (1989) Evolution and progression of atherosclerotic lesions in coronary arteries of children and young adults. Arteriosclerosis 9(1 Suppl):I19–I32

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. (1990) Relationship of atherosclerosis in young men to serum lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations and smoking. A preliminary report from the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) Research Group. JAMA 264(23):3018–3024

    Google Scholar 

  8. McMahan CA et al (2006) Pathobiological determinants of atherosclerosis in youth risk scores are associated with early and advanced atherosclerosis. Pediatrics 118(4):1447–1455

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA (1998) Determinants of atherosclerosis in the young pathobiological determinants of atherosclerosis in youth (PDAY) research group. Am J Cardiol 82(10B):30T–36T

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Strong JP et al (1999) Prevalence and extent of atherosclerosis in adolescents and young adults: implications for prevention from the pathobiological determinants of atherosclerosis in youth study. JAMA 281(8):727–735

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Newman WP 3rd et al (1986) Relation of serum lipoprotein levels and systolic blood pressure to early atherosclerosis. The Bogalusa heart study. N Engl J Med 314(3):138–144

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Berenson GS et al (1998) Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa heart study. N Engl J Med 338(23):1650–1656

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Raitakari OT et al (2003) Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. JAMA 290(17):2277–2283

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Davis PH et al (2001) Carotid intimal-medial thickness is related to cardiovascular risk factors measured from childhood through middle age: the Muscatine study. Circulation 104(23):2815–2819

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Mahoney LT et al (1996) Coronary risk factors measured in childhood and young adult life are associated with coronary artery calcification in young adults: the Muscatine study. J Am Coll Cardiol 27(2):277–284

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Stary HC et al (1994) A definition of initial, fatty streak, and intermediate lesions of atherosclerosis a report from the committee on vascular lesions of the council on arteriosclerosis, American heart association. Circulation 89(5):2462–2478

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. De Jesus JM (2011) Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents: summary report. Pediatrics 128(Suppl 5):S213–S256

    Google Scholar 

  18. U.D.o.A.U.d.o.H.a.H. Services (ed) (2011) Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2010. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  19. (1992) National cholesterol education program (NCEP): highlights of the report of the expert panel on blood cholesterol levels in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 89(3):495–501

    Google Scholar 

  20. Rifai N et al (1996) Failure of current guidelines for cholesterol screening in urban African-American adolescents. Pediatrics 98(3 Pt 1):383–388

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Dennison BA, Jenkins PL, Pearson TA (1994) Challenges to implementing the current pediatric cholesterol screening guidelines into practice. Pediatrics 94(3):296–302

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Sarnak MJ et al (2003) Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American heart association councils on kidney in cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure research, clinical cardiology, and epidemiology and prevention. Circulation 108(17):2154–2169

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Parekh RS et al (2002) Cardiovascular mortality in children and young adults with end-stage kidney disease. J Pediatr 141(2):191–197

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Kronenberg F, Utermann G, Dieplinger H (1996) Lipoprotein(a) in renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 27(1):1–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Ginsberg HN (1996) Diabetic dyslipidemia: basic mechanisms underlying the common hypertriglyceridemia and low HDL cholesterol levels. Diabetes 45(Suppl 3):S27–S30

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Cheung YF et al (2004) Novel and traditional cardiovascular risk factors in children after Kawasaki disease: implications for premature atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 43(1):120–124

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Silva AA et al (2001) Cardiovascular risk factors after Kawasaki disease: a case–control study. J Pediatr 138(3):400–405

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Dent CL et al (2000) Transplant coronary artery disease in pediatric heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 19(3):240–248

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Sniderman AD et al (2003) Triglycerides and small dense LDL: the twin Achilles heels of the Friedewald formula. Clin Biochem 36(7):499–504

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Rainwater DL et al (1999) Lipid and apolipoprotein predictors of atherosclerosis in youth: apolipoprotein concentrations do not materially improve prediction of arterial lesions in PDAY subjects. The PDAY research group. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19(3):753–761

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Frontini MG et al (2007) Utility of non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol versus other lipoprotein measures in detecting subclinical atherosclerosis in young adults (the Bogalusa heart study). Am J Cardiol 100(1):64–68

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Tamir I et al (1981) Lipid and lipoprotein distributions in white children ages 6–19 year. The lipid research clinics program prevalence study. J Chronic Dis 34(1):27–39

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Ford ES, Mokdad AH, Ajani UA (2004) Trends in risk factors for cardiovascular disease among children and adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics 114(6):1534–1544

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. American Academy of Pediatrics (1992) National cholesterol education program: report of the expert panel on blood cholesterol levels in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 89(3 Pt 2):525–584

    Google Scholar 

  35. US Dept of Health and Human Services (ed) (2011) National diabetes fact sheet: national estimates and general information on diabetes in the United States, 2011. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  36. Schwenke DC, Carew TE (1989) Initiation of atherosclerotic lesions in cholesterol-fed rabbits. II. Selective retention of LDL vs. selective increases in LDL permeability in susceptible sites of arteries. Arteriosclerosis 9(6):908–918

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Witztum JL, Steinberg D (1991) Role of oxidized low density lipoprotein in atherogenesis. J Clin Invest 88(6):1785–1792

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Steinberg D et al (1989) Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med 320(14):915–924

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Goldstein J, Hobbs H, Brown M (1995) Familial hypercholesterolemia. In: Scriver CEA (ed) The metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 1982–1983

    Google Scholar 

  40. Kawaguchi A et al (1999) Characteristic cardiovascular manifestation in homozygous and heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Am Heart J 137(3):410–418

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Goldstein JL et al (1976) Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: failure of normal allele to compensate for mutant allele at a regulated genetic locus. Cell 9(2):195–203

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Innerarity TL et al (1987) Familial defective apolipoprotein B-100: low density lipoproteins with abnormal receptor binding. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84(19):6919–6923

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Myant NB et al (1997) Estimation of the age of the ancestral arginine3500– > glutamine mutation in human apoB-100. Genomics 45(1):78–87

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Garcia CK et al (2001) Autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia caused by mutations in a putative LDL receptor adaptor protein. Science 292(5520):1394–1398

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Lagace TA et al (2006) Secreted PCSK9 decreases the number of LDL receptors in hepatocytes and in livers of parabiotic mice. J Clin Invest 116(11):2995–3005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Brunzell J (1995) Familial lipoprotein lipase deficiency and other causes of chylomicronemia syndrome. In: Scriver CEA (ed) The metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. Mc-Graw Hill, New York, pp 1913–1927

    Google Scholar 

  47. Kim C et al (2002) Oral contraceptive use and association with glucose, insulin, and diabetes in young adult women: the CARDIA study. Coronary artery risk development in young adults. Diabetes Care 25(6):1027–1032

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Teslovich TM et al (2010) Biological, clinical and population relevance of 95 loci for blood lipids. Nature 466(7307):707–713

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Boyd GS et al (2005) Effect of obesity and high blood pressure on plasma lipid levels in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 116(2):442–446

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Garces C et al (2005) Obesity in Spanish schoolchildren: relationship with lipid profile and insulin resistance. Obes Res 13(6):959–963

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Manlhiot C et al (2009) Spectrum and management of hypertriglyceridemia among children in clinical practice. Pediatrics 123(2):458–465

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Henneman P et al (2007) Plasma apoAV levels are markedly elevated in severe hypertriglyceridemia and positively correlated with the APOA5 S19W polymorphism. Atherosclerosis 193(1):129–134

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Beigneux AP et al (2009) Chylomicronemia with a mutant GPIHBP1 (Q115P) that cannot bind lipoprotein lipase. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 29(6):956–962

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Brunzell JD et al (1983) Plasma lipoproteins in familial combined hyperlipidemia and monogenic familial hypertriglyceridemia. J Lipid Res 24(2):147–155

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. ter Avest E et al (2007) Effect of aging and obesity on the expression of dyslipidaemia in children from families with familial combined hyperlipidaemia. Clin Sci (Lond) 112(2):131–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Mahely R, Rall S (1995) Type III hyperlipoproteinemia (dysbetalipoproteinemia): the role of apolipoprotein E in normal and abnormal lipoprotein metabolism. In: Scriver CEA (ed) The metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. McGraw Hill, New York, pp 1953–1973

    Google Scholar 

  57. Genest JJ Jr et al (1992) Familial lipoprotein disorders in patients with premature coronary artery disease. Circulation 85(6):2025–2033

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Yui Y et al (1988) Serum prostacyclin stabilizing factor is identical to apolipoprotein A-I (Apo A-I). A novel function of Apo A-I. J Clin Invest 82(3):803–807

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Ulevitch RJ, Johnston AR, Weinstein DB (1981) New function for high density lipoproteins. Isolation and characterization of a bacterial lipopolysaccharide-high density lipoprotein complex formed in rabbit plasma. J Clin Invest 67(3):827–837

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Breslow J (1995) Familial disorders of high density lipoprotein metabolism. In: Scriver CEA (ed) The metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. McGraw Hill, New York, pp 2031–2052

    Google Scholar 

  61. OMIM entry 600046 ATP binding cassette, s.A., member 1, ABCA1

    Google Scholar 

  62. Nagano M et al (2004) Molecular machanisms of cholestrol ester transfer protein deficiency in Japanese. J Atheroscler Thromb 11(3):110–21

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Srinivasan SR et al (1991) Racial (black-white) differences in serum lipoprotein (a) distribution and its relation to parental myocardial infarction in children. Bogalusa heart study. Circulation 84(1):160–167

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Craig WY et al (1998) Lipoprotein(a) as a risk factor for ischemic heart disease: metaanalysis of prospective studies. Clin Chem 44(11):2301–2306

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Danesh J, Collins R, Peto R (2000) Lipoprotein(a) and coronary heart disease. Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circulation 102(10):1082–1085

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Bennet A et al (2008) Lipoprotein(a) levels and risk of future coronary heart disease: large-scale prospective data. Arch Intern Med 168(6):598–608

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Erqou S et al (2009) Lipoprotein(a) concentration and the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and nonvascular mortality. JAMA 302(4):412–423

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. McLean JW et al (1987) cDNA sequence of human apolipoprotein(a) is homologous to plasminogen. Nature 330(6144):132–137

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Brown WV et al (2010) Management of Lp(a). J Clin Lipidol 4(4):240–247

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Loscalzo J et al (1990) Lipoprotein(a), fibrin binding, and plasminogen activation. Arteriosclerosis 10(2):240–245

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Uttermann G (1995) Lipoprotein (a). In: Scriver CEA (ed) The metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. McGraw Hill, New York, pp 1887–1912

    Google Scholar 

  72. Kavey RE et al (2006) Cardiovascular risk reduction in high-risk pediatric patients: a scientific statement from the American heart association expert panel on population and prevention science; the councils on cardiovascular disease in the young, epidemiology and prevention, nutrition, physical activity and metabolism, high blood pressure research, cardiovascular nursing, and the kidney in heart disease; and the interdisciplinary working group on quality of care and outcomes research: endorsed by the American academy of pediatrics. Circulation 114(24):2710–2738

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Ganji SH, Kamanna VS, Kashyap ML (2003) Niacin and cholesterol: role in cardiovascular disease (review). J Nutr Biochem 14(6):298–305

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Barter PJ et al (2007) Effects of torcetrapib in patients at high risk for coronary events. N Engl J Med 357(21):2109–2122

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Nicholls SJ et al (2011) Effects of the CETP inhibitor evacetrapib administered as monotherapy or in combination with statins on HDL and LDL cholesterol: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 306(19):2099–2109

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Krauss RM et al (2012) Changes in lipoprotein subfraction concentration and composition in healthy individuals treated with the cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibitor anacetrapib. J Lipid Res 53(3):540–547

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Children’s Hospital Colorado, 13123 E. 16th Avenue, B100, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA

    Elizabeth Yeung

  2. Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Division of Cardiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12801 E. 17th Ave, MS:8106, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA

    Robert Eckel

Authors
  1. Elizabeth Yeung
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert Eckel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth Yeung .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Univ. of Colorado, Denver, Aurora, Colorado, USA

    Eduardo M. Da Cruz

  2. Dept. Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Univ. of Colorado, Denver, Aurora, Colorado, USA

    Dunbar Ivy

  3. Pediatric Cardiac Surgery, Children's Hospital Colorado, Univ. of Colorado, Denver, Aurora, Colorado, USA

    James Jaggers

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer-Verlag London

About this entry

Cite this entry

Yeung, E., Eckel, R. (2014). Hypercholesterolemia and Dyslipidemia. In: Da Cruz, E., Ivy, D., Jaggers, J. (eds) Pediatric and Congenital Cardiology, Cardiac Surgery and Intensive Care. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4619-3_55

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4619-3_55

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-4618-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-4619-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation