Article Outline
Glossary
Introduction
Climate Change Impact on Human Health
Climate Change Impacts on Plants with Consequences for Human Health
Concluding Remarks
Bibliography
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Abbreviations
- Health:
-
As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
- Human bioclimate:
-
The fundamental issue in human biometeorology is the assessment of the direct health effects of the atmospheric environment from heat exchange, to solar radiation and air pollution.
- Climate change related direct health effects:
-
Climate change always impacts on human bioclimate, presently it leads to increased heat stress and heat stress frequency, higher ultraviolet radiation doses especially in summer, longer allergic pollen seasons and new allergens as well as intensified photo-smog.
- Thermal stress and mortality:
-
Summer heat waves in mid‐latitudes and elsewhere increase without doubt mortality; hence also highlight lack of correct adaptive measures, i. e. heat waves impact most strongly in societies with lack of social cohesion.
- Global expansion of tropical diseases:
-
The observed recent global warming has increased the incidence and enlarged the distribution of some tropical diseases due to the expansion of suitable conditions for both vectors and pathogens. A northward spread has been observed for West Nile fever, Leishmaniasis and Chikungunya fever and a climate‐driven spread has in parts also been recorded for malaria, dengue fever and other vector‐borne infectious diseases.
- Vector‐borne diseases:
-
In epidemiology a vector is an organism transmitting a pathogen from one of its reservoirs (e. g. ruminants, birds) to another one (e. g. human) without falling ill. Such vectors for tropical diseases are: mosquitoes, biting flies, bugs, lice, flea's and mites. Typical vector‐borne diseases are malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, West Nile fever, Leishmaniasis, Chikungunya fever. For some of these diseases global warming is the cause of the observed expansion or intensification. The complex web of reservoir organism, pathogens, vectors and infected organisms with different dependence on climate parameters often hinders a full understanding. Hence, surprises are and will be common.
- Arbo viruses:
-
Arbo viruses are transmitted by arthropods (arthropod-borne) to vertebrates and hence in parts also to humans. Besides yellow fever, tick borne encephalitis and dengue fever about 150 other diseases are due to virus infections by insects and spiders (arthropods). In very complex transmission cycles climatic conditions play a central role. The occurrence of unusual arbo virus infections is often related to changes in climatic conditions. Therefore, the partly dramatic global increase of some arbo virus infections is also driven at least in part by the ongoing global anthropogenic climate change.
- Arbo viruses transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes:
-
Aedes mosquitoes and Aedes‐transmitted arbo viruses such as the dengue and yellow fever viruses are a growing global threat. The primary vector of these diseases, Aedes aegypti, has re‐emerged throughout the tropics, but also Aedes albopictus has emerged as one of the worst invasive species taking the role of Aedes aegypti. Direct human activities like global trade are mainly responsible for the spread of these vectors and global warming – indirectly anthropogenic as well – cannot be ruled out as a contributor. With further warming temperate regions like Central Europe could also become areas for Aedes albopictus.
- Malaria and global warming:
-
Although the Anopheles mosquitoes transmitting the protozoae (e. g. Plasmodium falciparum) causing malaria are strongly dependent on temperature and suitable small water reservoirs for the larvae, the spread of malaria in recent years is more a consequence of deficiencies in public health systems of many countries rather than due to the observed global warming and concomitant precipitation changes.
- Blue‐tongue disease in Europe:
-
Since August 2006 the blue‐tongue‐disease of cattle and sheep (serotype 8 from South Africa) spread within months from the Netherlands to Belgium, Luxembourg, France and Germany alone at the end of 2006. The vector carrying the virus is the ceratopogonid, biting midge, Culicoides obsoletus. The new disease for ruminants in Western and Central Europe is primarily a consequence of globalization but the extremely warm winter 2006/2007 in Western and Central Europe supported further spreading.
- Carbon dioxide fertilization and quality of food:
-
From field experiments at elevated carbon dioxide concentrations (close to a doubling of preindustrial values) it is known that agricultural yield increases for C3 plants by 10 to 30 percent; however, frequently also reduced nitrogen content in plant tissue including seeds is observed. Hence, food quality may be lowered.
- Changes in the pollen season and new pollen:
-
The onset of flowering of plants in mid and high latitudes is mainly triggered by temperature. Therefore, warming in recent decades has caused an earlier start of pollen in the air, often also leading to a longer pollen season and for some pollen also to higher abundance stimulated by higher carbon dioxide concentration. Hence, susceptible individuals will suffer from pollen allergy longer and even perennial allergic symptoms may become possible.
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Grassl, H. (2011). Climate Change and Human Health . In: Meyers, R. (eds) Extreme Environmental Events. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7695-6_4
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