Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Living Ocean , An Evolving Oxymoron

  • Reference work entry
Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology

Definition of the Subject

The ocean , in which life on earth began, is increasingly threatened by human activities. Ecological stresses – including overfishing, transformed coastlines, pollution, sediment loss, introduced species, emerging infectious diseases, altered agricultural runoff, sewage discharges, red tides, increased ultraviolet radiation, and an apparently changing climate with acidification and increased hypoxia – are together impacting oceans and the health of humans, marine life and ecosystems. The health of the marine environment is at risk. Methods to assess marine ecosystem health are grossly lacking. A system to monitor and assess marine health threats linked to conservation and management policies is needed. This chapter summarizes the state of the oceans, human impacts including fisheries, climate change, globalization,...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 6,999.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

By-catch:

In fisheries, species that are caught by accident and are discarded dead or alive but injured back into the ocean, a major threat to marine biodiversity.

Conservation medicine:

The emerging discipline of ecological health in practice.

Global toxification:

Global toxification can be referred as the deposition of thousands of environmental contaminants in the biosphere that are poorly degraded and can move through water, wind or other transport medium to other countries, regions or continents with catastrophic effects in individuals and populations.

Harmful algal bloom:

A rapid increase or accumulation in the population of toxic or otherwise harmful phytoplankton in an aquatic system. These events also are known as red tides due to the coloration of the bloom that varies from brown to red. Some examples of harmful toxins include brevetoxin, ciguatera, domoic acid, okadaic acid.

Hypoxia:

Deprived of adequate oxygen supply.

Invasive species:

“An invasive species is a nonnative species – including seeds, eggs, spores, or other propagules – whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic harm, environmental harm, or harm to human health. The term invasive; is used for the most aggressive species. These species grow and reproduce rapidly, causing major disturbance to the areas in which they are present.” (http://www.invasive.org/101/index.cfm).

Ornamental fisheries:

Ornamental fisheries is often used as a generic term to describe aquatic animals kept in the aquarium hobby, including fishes, invertebrates such as corals, crustaceans (e.g., crabs, hermit crabs, shrimps), mollusks (e.g., snails, clams, scallops), and also live rock.

Sentinel species:

Due to their size, movements and behavior, marine mammals, sea birds and sea turtles have been classified as sentinel species because they can provide essential early warning information of damage to the environment and consequently raise concerns for public health. These animal groups can serve as sentinels of marine ecosystem health in relatively pristine habitats or highly degraded or overfished ecosystems.

Taurine:

An essential sulfonic acid for muscle development in animal species.

Transdisciplinarity (TD):

TD thinking employs perspectives and methods that transcend traditional disciplinary boundaries and engage students in addressing real-world problems. TD requires the team members to share roles and systematically cross discipline boundaries. The primary purpose of this approach is to pool and integrate the team expertise so that more efficient and comprehensive assessment and intervention may be provided in a determined field. The communication style in TD involves continuous give-and-take among all members on a regular, planned basis. Assessment, intervention, and evaluation are carried out jointly. TD brings together students, and outside the classroom, the future academic experts, field practitioners, community members, research scientists, political leaders, and business owners among others, to solve some of the pressing problems facing the world, from the local to the global and the natural and social sciences, to address the ecology and health of species and ecosystems.

Bibliography

  1. Colborn T, Dumanoski D, Meyers JP (1996) Our stolen future. Dutton, New York

    Google Scholar 

  2. Epstein PR (1993) Algal blooms in the spread and persistence of cholera. Biosystems 31:209–221

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. McMichael AJ, Bolin B, Costanza R, Daily GC, Folke C, Lindahl-Kiessling K, Lindgren B, Niklasson E (1999) Globalization and the sustainability of human health: an ecological perspective. Bioscience 49:205–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Estes JA, Duggins DO (1995) Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm. Ecol Monogr 65:75–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Epstein PR (1999) Climate and health. Science 285:347–348

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Bejarano AC, Van Dolah FM, Gulland FMD, Rowles TK, Schwacke LH (2008) Production and toxicity of the marine biotoxin domoic acid and its effects on wildlife: a review. Human Ecol Risk Assess 14:544–567

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Weber ES (2012) Emerging infectious diseases in fisheries and aquaculture. In: Aguirre AA, Ostfeld RS, Daszak P (eds) New directions in conservation medicine: applied cases of ecological health. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  8. Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB Jr (1995) Interactions of a toxic estuarine dinoflaglellate with microbial predators and prey. Arch Protistenk 145:177–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Meffe G (1999) Conservation medicine. Conserv Biol 13:953–954

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Aguirre AA, Ostfeld RS, Tabor GM, House CA, Pearl MC (eds) (2002) Conservation medicine: ecological health in practice. Oxford University Press, New York, 407 pp

    Google Scholar 

  11. Aguirre AA, Ostfeld RS, Daszak P (eds) (2012) New directions in conservation medicine: applied cases of ecological health. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  12. Tabor GM, Ostfeld RS, Poss M, Dobson AP, Aguirre AA (2001) Conservation biology and the health sciences: defining the research priorities of conservation medicine. In: Soulé ME, Orians GH (eds) Research priorities in conservation biology, 2nd edn. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp 165–173

    Google Scholar 

  13. Jones KE, Patel N, Levy M, Storeygard A, Balk D, Gittleman JL, Daszak P (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451:990–994

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Milligan SR, Holt WV, Lloyd R (2009) Impacts of climate change and environmental factors on reproduction and development in wildlife. Phil Trans R Soc 364:3313–3319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Gore A (2010) Disrupting chemicals from basic research to clinical practice. Humana Press, Totowa, 349 pp

    Google Scholar 

  16. Rogers AD, Laffoley Dd’A (2011) International earth system expert workshop on ocean stresses and impacts. Summary report. IPSO, Oxford, 18 pp

    Google Scholar 

  17. Suttle CA (2005) Viruses in the sea. Nature 437:356–361

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Weinbauer MG (2004) Ecology of prokaryotic viruses. FEMS Microbiol Rev 28:127–181

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Venter JC, Remington K et al (2004) Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargasso sea. Science 304(5667):66–74

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Eschmeyer WN (ed) Catalog of fishes electronic version (25 Oct 2010). http://research.calacademy.org/ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp. Accessed 12 Nov 2010

  21. Pauly D, Christensen V, Dalsgaard J, Froese R, Torres F (1998) Fishing down marine food webs. Science 279:860–863

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Myers RA, Worm B (2003) Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 423:280–283

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Food and Agricultural Organization Aquaculture Production Statistics 1998–2007 (Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, 2008). http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/programme/3,2,1/en. Accessed 15 June 2010

  24. Folke C (1988) Energy economy of salmon aquaculture in the Baltic Sea. J Environ Manage 12:525–537

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Tacon AGJ (2005) Salmon aquaculture dialogue: status of information on salmon aquaculture feed and the environment. Int Aquafeed 8:22–37

    Google Scholar 

  26. Naylor RL, Goldberg RJ, Primavera JH et al (2000) Effects of aquaculture on World food supplies. Nature 405:1017–1024

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Tacon AGJ, Metian M (2009) Fishing for aquaculture: nonfood use of small pelagic forage fish, a global perspective. Rev Fish Sci 17:305–317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Naylor RL et al (2009) Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:15103–15110

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Takagi S, Murata H, Goto T, Ichiki T, Munasinghe DMS, Endo M, Matsumoto T, Sakurai A, Hatate H, Yoshida T, Sakai T, Yamashita H, Ukawa M, Kuramoto T (2005) The green liver syndrome is caused by taurine deficiency in yellowtail, Seriolaquinque radiata fed diets without fishmeal. Aquac Sci 53:279–290

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Dierberg FE, Kiattisimkul W (1995) Issues, impacts, and implications of shrimp aquaculture in Thailand. J Environ Manage 20(5):649–666

    Google Scholar 

  31. Dewalt BR, Vergne P, Hardin M (1996) Shrimp aquaculture development and the environment: people, mangroves and fisheries on the Gulf of Fonseca, Honduras. World Development 24(7):1193–1208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Kautsky N, Ronnback P, Tedengren M, Troell M (2000) Ecosystem perspectives on management of disease in shrimp pond farming. Aquaculture 191(1–3):145–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Primavera JH (1997) Socioeconomic impacts of shrimp culture. Aquac Res 28:815–827

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Beveridge MCM, Ross LG, Kelly LA (1994) Aquaculture and biodiversity. Ambio 23:497–502

    Google Scholar 

  35. Diana JS (2009) Aquaculture production and biodiversity conservation. Bioscience 59:27–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Bondad-Reantaso MG, Subasinghe RP, Arthur JR, Ogawa K, Chinabut S, Adlard R, Tan Z, Shariff M (2005) Disease and health management in Asian aquaculture. Vet Parasitol 132:249–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Godfray HCJ, Beddington JR, Crute IR, Haddad L, Lawrence D, Muir JF, Pretty J, Robinson S, Thomas SM, Toulmin C (2010) Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 327:812–818

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Georgiadis MP, Gardner IA, Hedrick RP (2001) The role of epidemiology in the prevention, diagnosis, and control of infectious diseases of fish. Prev Vet Med 48:287–302

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Gulland FMD, Hall A (2007) Is marine mammal health deteriorating? Trends in the global reporting of marine mammal disease. Ecohealth 4:135–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Ward JC, Lafferty KD (2004) The elusive baseline of marine disease: are diseases in ocean ecosystems increasing? PLoS Biol 2:542–547

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Hedrick RP, McDowell T, Groff J (1987) Mycobacteriosis in cultured striped bass from California. J Wildl Dis 23(3):391–395

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Kane A, Stine CB, Hungerford L et al (2007) Mycobacteria as environmental portent in Chesapeake Bay fish species. Emerg Infect Dis 13(2):329–331, www.cdc.gov/eid

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Stine CB, Jacobs JM, Rhodes MR et al (2009) Expanded range and new host species of Mycobacterium shottsii and M. pseudoshottsii. J Aquat Anim Health 21:179–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Lovell SJ, Stone SF, Fernandez L (2006) The economic impacts of aquatic invasive species: a review of the literature. Agric Resour Econ Rev 35(1):195–208

    Google Scholar 

  45. McNeely JA, Schutyser F (2003) Invasive species: a global concern bubbling to the surface. In: International conference on the impact of global environmental problems on continental and coastal marine waters. Geneva, Switzerland, 16–18 July 2003, pp 1–14

    Google Scholar 

  46. Aquatic Nuisance Species (ANS) task force. http://www.anstaskforce.gov/default.php Accessed 30 March2010. Northeast Aquatic Nuisance Species (NEANS) Panel. http://www.northeastans.org Accessed 15 Dec 2010

  47. Njiru M, Nzungi P, Getabu A, Wakwabi E, Othina A, Jembe T, Wekesa S (2007) Are fisheries management, measures in Lake Victoria successful? The case of Nile perch and Nile tilapia fishery. African J Ecol 45:315–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Johnson LE, Padilla DK (1996) Geographic spread of exotic species: ecological lessons and opportunities from the invasion of the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. Biol Conserv 78:23–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Morris JA Jr, Akins JL, Barse A et al (2008) Biology and ecology of the invasive lionfishes, Pterois miles and Pterois volitants. In: Proceedings of the 61st Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Gosier, Goudeloupe, French West Indies, 10–14 Nov 2008, pp 1–6

    Google Scholar 

  50. Fisher MC, Garner TWJ (2007) The relationship between the emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the international trade in amphibians and introduced amphibian species. Fungal Biol Rev 21:2–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Tillitt DE, Zajicek JL, Brown SB et al (2005) Thiamine and thiaminase status in forage fish of salmonines from Lake Michigan. J Aquat Anim Health 17:13–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Schoeb TR, Heaton-Jones TG, Clemmons RM et al (2002) Clinical and necropsy findings associated with increased mortality among American alligators of Lake Griffin, Florida. J Wildl Dis 38(2):320–337

    Google Scholar 

  53. Lumsden JS, Morrison B, Yason C, Russell S, Young K, Yazdanpanah A, Huber P, Al-Hussinee L, Stone D, Way K (2007) Mortality event in freshwater drum Aplodinotus grunniens from Lake Ontario, Canada, associated with viral haemorrhagic septicemia virus, Type IV. Dis Aquat Organ 76:99–111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Wilde SB, Murphy TM, Hope CP et al (2005) Avian vacuolar myelinopathy linked to exotic aquatic plants and a novel cyanobacterial species. Environ Toxicol 20(3):348–353

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Hoffman GL (1990) Myxobolus cerebralis, a worldwide cause of salmonid whirling disease. J Aquat Anim Health 2:30–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Malmberg G (1957) Om förekomsten av Gyrodactylus påsvenska fiskar. – Skr. söd. Sver. Fisk För. Årsskr.1956: 19–76. (In Norwegian, English summary)

    Google Scholar 

  57. Needler AWH, Logie RR (1947) Serious mortalities in Prince Edward Island oysters caused by a contagious disease. Transcr R Soc Canada, Ser III 41(V):73–89

    Google Scholar 

  58. Pronin NM, Selgeby JH, Litvinov SV, Pronina SV (1998) Comparative ecology and parasite fauna of exotic invaders in the great lakes of the world: amur sleeper (Percottus glehni) in Lake Baikal and ruffe (Gymnocephalus cernuus) in Lake Superior. Siberian J Ecol 5(5):397–406 (In Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  59. Elston RA, Farley CA, Kent ML (1986) Occurrence and signicance of bonamiasis in European flat oysters Ostrea edulis in North America. Dis Aquat Organ 2:49–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Friedman CS, McDowell T, Groff JM, Hollibaugh JT, Manzer D, Hedrick RP (1989) Presence of Bonamia ostreae among populations of the European flat oyster, Ostrea edulis Linne, in California, USA. J Shellfish Res 8:133–137

    Google Scholar 

  61. Friedman CS, Perkins FO (1994) Range extension of Bonamia ostreae to Maine, USA. J Invertebr Pathol 64:179–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Marty GD, Bower SM, Clarke KR, Meyer G, Lowe G, Osborn AL, Chow EP, Hannah H, Byrne S, Sojonky K, Robinson JH (2006) Histopathology and a real-time PCR assay for detectionof Bonamia ostreae in Ostrea edulis cultured in western Canada. Aquaculture 261:33–42

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Crowl TA, Crist TO, Parmenter RR et al (2008) The spread of invasive species and infectious disease as drivers of ecosystem change. Front Ecol Environ 6(5):238–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Nyaoke A, Weber ES, Innis C et al (2009) Disseminated phaeohyphomycosis in weedy seadragons (Phyllopteryxtae niolatus) and leafy seadragons (Phycodurus eques) caused by species of Exophiala, including a novel species. J Vet Diagn Investig 21(1):69–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Whittington RJ, Chong R (2007) Global trade in ornamental fish from an Australian perspective: the case for revised import risk analysis and management strategies. Prev Vet Med 81:92–116

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Levings RS, Lightfoot D, Hall RM, Djordjevic SP (2006) Aquariums as reservoirs for multidrug-resistant Salmonella paratyphi B. Emerg Infect Dis 12(3):507–510 www.cdc.gov/eid. (Accessed on 21 May 2010)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Dentler JL (1993) Noah’s farce: the regulation and control of exotic fish and wildlife. University of Puget Sound Law Review 17:192–242

    Google Scholar 

  68. Andrews C (1990) The ornamental fish trade and fish conservation. J Fish Biol 37:53–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Helfman GS (2007) Fish conservation: a guide to understanding and restoring global aquatic biodiversity and fishery resources. Island Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  70. Smith KF, Behrens MD, Schloegel LM, Marano N, Burgiel S, Daszak P (2009) Reducing the risks of the wildlife trade. Science 324:594–595

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Food and Agricultural Organization Aquaculture Production Statistics 2010 (Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, 2010). State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2011

  72. Galvez R, Therese GH, Bautista C, Tungpalan MT (1989) Sociocultural dynamics of blast fishing and sodium cyanide fishing in two fishing villages in the Lingayen Gulf area. 43–62. In: Silvester G, Miclat E, Chua TE (eds) Towards sustainable development of the resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM conference proceeding number 17, 200 pp

    Google Scholar 

  73. Vagelli AA (2004) Significant increase in survival of captive-bred juvenile Banggai cardinalfish, Pterapogon kauderni, with an essential fatty acid enriched diet. J World Aquac Soc 35(1):61–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Lunn KE, Moreau MA (2004) Unmonitored trade in marine ornamental fishes: the case of Indonesia’s Banggai cardinalfish (Pterapogon kauderni ). Coral Reefs 23:344–351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Ziemann DA (2001) The potential for the restoration of marine ornamental fish populations through hatchery releases. Aquar Sci Conserv 3:107–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Wilkinson C (2004) Status of coral reefs of the world volumes 1 & 2. Global reef monitoring network. Australian Insititute of Science. http://www.gcrmn.org/status2004.aspx. Accessed 1 May 2011

  77. Hoegh-Guldberg O et al (2007) Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318:1737–1742

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Goldberg J, Wilkinson C (2004) Global threats to coral reefs: coral bleaching, global climate change, disease, predator plagues, and invasive species. In: Wilkinson C (ed) Status of coral reefs of the world: 2004, vol 1. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, 301 pp reportscr2004v1-01, pp 68–92

    Google Scholar 

  79. Danovaro R, Bongiorni L, Corninaldesi C, Giovannelli D, Damiani E, Astolfi P, Greci L, Pusceddu A (2008) Sunscreens cause coral bleaching by promoting viral infections. Environ Health Perspect 116:441–447

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Monod G, Devaux A, Riviere JL (1988) Effects of chemical pollution on the activities of hepatic xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in fish from the Rhone River. Sci Total Environ 73:189–201

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. VanLeeuwen SPJ, van Velzen MJM, Swart CP et al (2009) Halogenated contaminants in farmed salmon, trout, tilapia, pangasius, and shrimp. Environ Sci Technol 43:4009–4015

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Shaw SD, Brenner D, Bourakovsky A et al (2005) PCBs, dioxin-like PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in farmed salmon (Salmosalar) from Maine and eastern Canada. Organohalogen Compounds 67:1571–1576

    Google Scholar 

  83. Shaw SD, Brenner D, Berger ML et al (2006) PCBs, PCDD/Fs, and organochlorine pesticides in farmed Atlantic salmon from Maine, eastern Canada, and Norway, and wild salmon from Alaska. Environ Sci Technol 40:5347–5354

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Shaw SD, Brenner D, Berger ML et al (2007) PCBs, PCDD/Fs, and organochlorine pesticides in farmed Atlantic salmon from Maine, eastern Canada, and Norway, and wild salmon from Alaska (comment/correction). Environ Sci Technol 41:4180

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Hites RA, Foran JA, Carpenter DO et al (2004) Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon. Science 303:226–229

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Ikonomou MG et al (2007) Flesh quality of market-size farmed and wild British Columbia salmon. Environ Sci Technol 41:437–443

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Knobeloch L, Turyk M, Imm P, Schrank C, Anderson H (2008) Temporal changes in PCB and DDE levels among a cohort of frequent and infrequent consumers of Great Lakes sportfish. Environ Res 109:66–72

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Khan RA (1990) Parasitism in marine fish after chronic exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons in the laboratory and to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 44:759–763

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Evans DH (1987) The fish gill: site of action and model for toxic effects of environmental pollutants. Environ Health Perspect 71:47–58

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Gagnon MM, Holdway DA (1999) Metabolic enzyme activities in fish gills as biomarkers of exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 44:92–99

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Conover MR, Vest JL (2009) Concentrations of selenium and mercury in eared grebes (Podiceps nigricollis) from Utah’s Great Salt Lake, USA. Environ Toxicol Chem 28(6):1319–1323

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Chalmers AT, Argue DM, Gay DA et al (2010). Mercury trends in fish from rivers and lakes in the United States, 1969–2005. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment; published online 10 June 2010. Accessed 05 July 2010

    Google Scholar 

  93. Mills LJ, Chichester C (2005) Review of evidence: are endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the aquatic environment impacting fish populations? Sci Total Environ 343:1–34

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Jobling S, Nolan M, Tyler CR et al (1998) Widespread sexual disruption in wild fish. Environ Sci Technol 32:2498–2506

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Costanzo SD, Murby J, Bates J (2005) Ecosystem response to antibiotics entering the aquatic environment. Mar Pollut Bull 51:218–223

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Christian T, Schneider RJ, Farber HA (2003) Determination of antibiotic residues in manure, soil, and surface waters. Acta Hydrochimicaethydrobiologica 31(1):36–44

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Hirsch R, Ternes T, Haberer K, Kratz KL (1999) Occurrence of antibiotics in the aquatic environment. Sci Total Environ 225(1–2):109–118

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Boxall ABA, Fogg LA, Blackwell PA et al (2004) Veterinary medicines in the environment. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 180:1–91

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Kemper N (2008) Veterinary antibiotics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Ecol Indic 8:1–13

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Schmidt A, Bruun MS, Dalsgaard I et al (2000) Occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in fish-pathogenic and environmental bacteria associated with four Danish rainbow trout farms. Appl Environ Microbiol 66(11):4908–4915

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Rhodes G, Huys G, Swings J et al (2000) Distribution of oxytetracycline resistance plasmids between aeromonads in hospital and aquaculture environments: implications of TN1 721 in dissemination of the tetracycline resistance determinant Tet A. Appl Environ Microbiol 66(9):3883–3890

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Musto J, Kirk M, Lightfoot D et al (2006) Multi-drug resistant Salmonella java infections acquired from tropical fish aquariums, Australia, 2003–04. Commun Dis Intell 30:222–227

    Google Scholar 

  103. Weber JT, Mintz ED, Cañizareset R (1994) Epidemic cholera in Ecuador: multi-drug resistance and transmission by water and seafood. Epidemiol Infect 112:1–11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Rahel FJ, Olden JD (2008) Assessing the effects of climate change on aquatic invasive species. Conserv Biol 22(3):521–533

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Riley SC, Munkittrick KR, Evans AN, Krueger CC (2008) Understanding the ecology of disease in Great Lakes fish populations. Aquat Ecosystem Health and Management 11(3):321–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Bark S, McGregor D (2001) The first occurrence of lactococcosis in farmed trout in England. Trout News 31:9–11

    Google Scholar 

  107. Wahli T, Knuesel R, Bernet D, Segner H, Pugnovkin D, Burkhardt-Holm P, Escher M, Schmidt-Posthaus H (2002) Proliferative kidney disease in Switzerland: current state of knowledge. J Fish Dis 25:491–500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Sherman BH, Epstein PR (2001) Past anomalies as a diagnostic tool for evaluating multiple marine ecological disturbance. Human Ecol Risk Assess 7:1493–1517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Sherman BH (2000) Marine disturbance, a survey of morbidity, mortality and disease events. Mar Pollut Bull 41:232–254

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Aguirre AA, Tabor GM (2004) Marine vertebrates as sentinels of marine ecosystem health. Ecohealth 1:236–238

    Google Scholar 

  111. Tabor GM, Aguirre AA (2004) Ecosystem health and sentinel species: adding an ecological element to the proverbial “canary in the mineshaft”. Ecohealth 1:226–228

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Kittinger JN, Duin KN, Wilcox BA (2009) Commercial fishing, conservation and compatibility in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Mar Policy. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2009.06.007

    Google Scholar 

  113. Aguirre AA, Reif JS, Antonelis GA (1999) Hawaiian monk seal epidemiology plan: health assessment and disease status studies. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical report NMFS NWFSC-280, 63 pp

    Google Scholar 

  114. Aguirre AA, Keefe TJ, Reif JS, Kashinsky L, Yochem P, Saliki JT, Stott JL, Goldstein T, Dubey JP, Braun R, Antonelis G (2007) Infectious disease monitoring of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal. J Wildl Dis 43:229–241

    Google Scholar 

  115. Aguirre AA, Lutz P (2004) Sea turtles as sentinels of marine ecosystem health: is fibropapillomatosis an indicator? Ecohealth 1:275–283

    Google Scholar 

  116. Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2000) Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife – threats to biodiversity and human health. Science 287:443–449

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Whittington RJ, Jones JB, Hine PM, Hyatt AD (1997) Epizootic mortality in the pilchard Sardinops sagax neopilchardus in Australia and New Zealand in 1995. 1. Pathology and epizootiology. Dis Aquat Organ 28:1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Dann P, Norman FI, Cullen JM et al (2000) Mortality and breeding failure of little penguins, Eudyptula minor, in Victoria, 1995–6, following a widespread mortality of pilchard Sardinops sagax. Mar Freshw Res 51:355–362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Gaughan DJ (2002) Disease-translocation across geographic boundaries must be recognized as a risk even in the absence of disease identification: the case with Australian Sardinops. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 11:113–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Marty GD, Hulson P-JF, Miller SE, Quinn TJ II, Moffitt SD, Merizon RA (2010) Failure of population recovery in relation to disease in Pacific herring. Dis Aquat Organ 90:1–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Bartholomew JL, Reno PW (2002) The history and dissemination of whirling disease, pp 3–24. In: Bartholomew JL, Wilson JC (eds) Whirling disease: reviews and current topics. American Fisheries Society, Symposium 29, Bethesda, Maryland

    Google Scholar 

  122. Halliday MM (1973) Studies of Myxosoma cerebralis, a parasite of salmonids. II. The development and pathology of Myxosoma cerebralis in experimentally infected rainbow trout (Salmon gairdneri) fry reared at different water temperatures. Nord Vet Med 25:349–358

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Nehring RB, Walker PG (1996) Whirling disease in the wild: the new reality in the Intermountain West. Fisheries 21:28–30

    Google Scholar 

  124. Vincent ER (1996) Whirling disease and wild trout: the Montana experience. Fisheries 21:32–34

    Google Scholar 

  125. Andree K, Hedrick RP, MacConnell E (2002) A review of approaches to detect Myxobolus cerebralis, the cause of salmonid whirling disease, pp 197–212. In: Bartholomew JL, Wilson JC (eds) Whirling disease: reviews and current topics. American Fisheries Society, Symposium 29, Bethesda, Maryland

    Google Scholar 

  126. Hedrick RP, Petri B, McDowell TS, Mukkatira K, Sealey LJ (2007) Evaluation of a range of doses of ultraviolet irradiation to inactivate the waterborne actinospore stages of Myxobolus cerebralis. Dis Aquat Organ 74:113–118

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Hedrick RP, McDowell TS, Mukkatira K, MacConnell E, Petri B (2008) Effects of freezing, drying, ultraviolet irradiation, chlorine and quaternary ammonium treatments on the infectivity of myxospores of Myxobolus cerebralis or Tubifex tubifex. J Aquat Anim Health 20:116–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Hedrick RP, McDowell TS, Marty GD, Fosgate GT, Mukkatira K, Myklebust K, El-Matbouli M (2003) Susceptibility of two strains of rainbow trout (one with a suspected resistance to whirling disease) to Myxobolus cerebralis infection. Dis Aquat Organ 55:37–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Schisler GS, Myklebust KA, Hedrick RP (2006) Inheritance of resistance to Myxobolus cerebralis among F1 generation crosses of whirling disease resistant and susceptible strains of rainbow trout. J Aquat Anim Health 18:109–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. McBride MP, Sims MA, Cooper RW, Nyaoke AC, Cullion C, Kiupel M, FrascaJr S, Forrester N, Weaver SC, Weber ES (2008) Eastern equine encephalitis in a captive harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). J Zoo Wildl Med 39(4):631–637

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Boerner L, Necvis KR, Hinckley LS et al (2004) Erysipelthrixsepticemia in a little blue penguin (Eudyptula minor). J Vet Diagn Investig 16:145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Hedrick RP, Marty G, Nordhausen RW, Kebus M, Bercovier H, Eldar A (1999) A herpesvirus associated with mass mortality of juvenile and adult koi Cyprinus carpio. Fish Health Newsletter, Fish Health Section, American Fisheries Society 27:7

    Google Scholar 

  133. Kocan R, Hershberger P, Winton J (2004) Ichthyophoniasis: an emerging disease of Chinook salmon in the Yukon River. J Aquat Anim Health 16:58–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Chinchar VG, Essbauer S, He JG et al (2005) Iridoviridae. In: Fauguet CM, Mayo MA, Maniloff J (eds) Virus taxonomy: 8th report of the international committee on the taxonomy of viruses. Elsevier, London, pp 163–175

    Google Scholar 

  135. McVicar AH (1997) Disease and parasite implications of the coexistence of wild and cultured Atlantic salmon populations. ICES J Mar Sci 54:1093–1103

    Google Scholar 

  136. Marty GD, Saksida SM, Quinn II TJ (2010) Relationship of farm salmon, sea lice, and wild salmon populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America for P Natl Acad Sci USA. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1009573108 PNAS December 28, 2010 107(52):22599–22604

    Google Scholar 

  137. Hedrick RP, Batts WN, Yun S et al (2003) Host and geographic range extensions of the North American strain of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus. Dis Aquat Organ 55:211–220

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

E.P. Weber III wants to thank Dr. Bryon Jacoby for all his patience during the drafting, rewriting, and editing of this chapter and he thanks Dr. Ronald Hedrick for assistance with the whirling disease section and providing images. Dr Hedrick has led Fish Health at the University of California School of Veterinary Medicine in Davis over the last 30 years and has contributed to nearly 300 publications related to Aquatic Animal Health. Ron is a great friend, colleague, and mentor. We are most grateful to H.M. Smith, S. Sgroi and M. DeRario for their thoughtful input and comments for lightening it our scientific jargon up to an enjoyable reading for our K-12 public.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA

    Dr. A. Alonso Aguirre D.V.M., M.S., Ph.D.

  2. Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, C/O Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA

    Dr. A. Alonso Aguirre D.V.M., M.S., Ph.D.

  3. Medicine and Epidemiology: Vet Med Center for Aquatic Biology and Aquaculture, University of California, Davis, 2108 Tupper Hall, Davis, CA, 95616, USA

    Dr. E. Scott Weber III V.M.D., M.Sc.

Authors
  1. Dr. A. Alonso Aguirre D.V.M., M.S., Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dr. E. Scott Weber III V.M.D., M.Sc.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. Alonso Aguirre D.V.M., M.S., Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. RAMTECH LIMITED, Larkspur, CA, USA

    Robert A. Meyers

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this entry

Cite this entry

Aguirre, A.A., Weber III, E.S. (2012). Living Ocean , An Evolving Oxymoron. In: Meyers, R.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_910

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation