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Solar-Induced Climate Effects

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Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology

Definition

Solar electromagnetic radiation powers Earth’s climate system and, consequently, it is often naively assumed that changes in this solar output must be responsible for changes in Earth’s climate. However, the Sun emits according to its surface temperature and the huge thermal time constant of the outer part of the Sun limits the variability in surface temperature and hence output. As a result, on all timescales of interest, changes in total power output are limited to small changes in effective surface temperature (associated with magnetic fields) and potential, although as yet undetected, solar radius variations. Larger variations are seen in the UV part of the spectrum which is emitted from the lower solar atmosphere (the chromosphere) and which influences Earth’s stratosphere. There is interest in “top-down” mechanisms whereby solar UV irradiance modulates stratospheric temperatures and winds which, in turn, may influence the underlying...

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Abbreviations

Anomaly:

The deviation of a parameter from its mean value over a defined reference period.

Blackbody radiator:

A body that emits the maximum radiation possible for its temperature, at all wavelengths.

Chromosphere:

The lower solar atmosphere, within about 2,000 km of the photosphere.

Cloud condensation nuclei:

An aerosol particle or air ion on which water can condense such that it grows into a cloud water droplet.

Diffuse fraction:

The ratio of the intensity in shade divided by the intensity in direct sunlight; for clear skies the diffuse fraction approaches zero, whereas for cloudy skies (and/or with heavy aerosol loading) the diffuse fraction approaches unity.

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO):

The extremes of this quasi-periodic (period of 3–7 years) coupled ocean–atmosphere circulation oscillation are El Niño and La Niña events in which the sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific is, respectively, warmer and colder than average. ENSO is one of the predominant causes of interannual variability of regional climates around the globe.

Forbush decrease:

A transient decrease in GCR fluxes reaching Earth lasting typically 1–4 days, caused by the shielding properties of transient events released from the solar atmosphere.

Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs):

Charged particles ranging in mass from electrons and protons up to iron and silicon ions with energies typically of order 0.1–100 GeV. They are generated by explosive galactic events such as supernovae. The flux of GCRs at Earth is modulated by the extension of the solar magnetic field into interplanetary space.

Global albedo (A):

The fraction of the total electromagnetic energy from the Sun incident on the Earth that is reflected back into space.

Global circulation model (GCM):

Also called a General Climate Model. A numerical model of Earth’s global climate system incorporating best available knowledge of the fluid dynamical, chemical, and, increasingly, biological aspects of Earth’s climate system.

Global Mean Air Surface Temperature (GMAST):

The average of the temperature measured 2 m above the ground by a global network of meteorological stations. The number of stations available declines further back into the past and is consistently lower in the southern hemisphere. Note that it is usually expressed as an anomaly by taking global averages of the station temperature anomalies.

Heliosphere:

The area of space surrounding the Sun and solar system dominated by the solar wind and the magnetic field of solar origin embedded in it.

Jet stream:

Narrow bands of fast westerly (eastward) wind in the upper troposphere caused by the combination of equatorial solar heating and Earth’s rotation. There are two in each hemisphere: the polar jets are typically found at latitudes of 30–60° whereas the weaker subtropical jets are at 25–30°.

Laschamp event:

An example of a geomagnetic excursion that occurred around 40 kyr ago. These events are “short-lived” (typically 1–10 kyr in duration) decreases in the geomagnetic field intensity (often to below 20% of normal) with a variation in pole orientation of up to 45°, but no polarity reversal. Any confirmed and consistent paleoclimate signatures of climate change associated with this event would be very significant because the GCR flux reaching Earth’s atmosphere would increase but with no simultaneous solar irradiance change.

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO):

An oscillation in the pattern and strengths of westerly winds and storm tracks in the north Atlantic. It is quantified by the fluctuations in sea level pressure between the Icelandic low and the Azores high. The NAO is very closely related to the Arctic Oscillation (AO – which is also called the Northern Annular Mode, NAM).

Northern annular mode (NAM):

Also called the Arctic Oscillation: see “North Atlantic Oscillation.”

Open solar flux:

The magnetic field of solar origin that leaves the top of the solar atmosphere and fills the heliosphere.

Paleoclimatology:

The reconstruction of past climate from a variety of sources such as tree growth from tree rings (dendrochronology); analysis of air bubbles trapped in snow and ice; chemical and isotopic analysis of speliothems, lake deposits, ocean sediments, ice-rafted debris and corals; and documentary evidence.

Photosphere:

The visible surface of the Sun (mean radius R⊙).

Radiative forcing:

The change in the difference between the incoming radiation energy and the outgoing radiation energy per unit area at the atmospheric boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere (the tropopause). It is measured in Wm−2. Consider the case of a TSI change of ΔS: the change in the total power incident on Earth is ΔSπR 2E , where R E is a mean Earth radius. The change per unit surface area of the Earth is ΔSπR 2E /(4πR 2E ) = ΔS/4. The part not reflected back into space is ΔS(1 − A)/4, where A is Earth’s global albedo. Therefore, a TSI change of ΔS corresponds to a radiative forcing of ΔS(1 − A)/4. For other influences on climate the equivalent value can be computed in each case.

Solar energetic particles (SEPs):

Charged particles ranging in mass from electrons and protons up to iron and silicon ions of energies of order 0.1–100 MeV. They are generated by transient events in the solar atmosphere and heliosphere.

Solar wind:

The continuous, supersonic and super Alfvénic outflow of thermal plasma (ionized gas) from the solar atmosphere driven by its high temperatures.

Spectral solar irradiance (SSI):

The solar electromagnetic power at a given wavelength, per unit wavelength, falling on unit area normal to the Sun–Earth line (often considered in the UV band of the spectrum).

Stratosphere:

Atmospheric layer at about 20–55 km altitude, between the tropopause and the stratopause.

Super-Alfvénic:

In a plasma (ionized gas) a family of waves which modulate both the plasma and the magnetic field can propagate. These are called Alfvén waves, and particles that move faster than them are called Super-Alfvénic.

Total solar irradiance (TSI):

The total solar electromagnetic power falling on unit area normal to the Sun–Earth line.

Troposphere:

The Atmospheric layer between Earth’s surface and the tropopause, which lies at an altitude of about 11 km at the poles and 17 km at the equator. All climate and weather processes reside in the troposphere.

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  1. Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, Earley Gate, P.O. Box 243, Reading, RG6 6BB, UK

    Dr. Mike Lockwood

  2. RAL Space, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Campus, Chilton, Didcot, Oxfordshire, OX11 0QX, UK

    Dr. Mike Lockwood

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    Robert A. Meyers

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Lockwood, M. (2012). Solar-Induced Climate Effects . In: Meyers, R.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_446

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