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Transgenic Livestock , Ethical Concerns and Debate

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Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology

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Humans have been able to manipulate the genomes of livestock through selective breeding for centuries; however, direct intervention has become possible only through the development of transgenic technology over the past 3 decades. So far, genetically modified animals have mainly been developed for basic research and biomedicine, but they are slowly beginning to enter the agricultural production system. In this article, livestock is defined to be all species used within the agricultural and aquacultural system. Note that such animals can be genetically modified for use within basic and medical research as well.

Most people would readily agree that there is a difference between what humans can do and what they oughtto do. Equally, most people would happily acknowledge that it is good to do the morally right thing. However, the harmony usually ends there, because although it is easy to agree that a good thing should be promoted, it is often hard to reach...

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Abbreviations

Animal bioreactor:

Transgenic animal that produces recombinant proteins in its milk, egg white, blood, urine, or seminal plasma.

Antibody:

Protein produced as part of the immune reaction to render harmless a foreign substance (e.g., bacteria) entering the body of an organism.

Cloning:

(a) Production of exact copies (clones) of a gene/genes (gene cloning). The DNA strand containing the gene of interest is cut into suitably sized pieces (fragmentation) and the gene of interest is linked to a piece of DNA (cloning vector). This vector is then introduced into cells (transfection) which are cultured in vitro and then screened for the presence of the gene of interest. (b) Production of genetically identical organisms by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). It involves the introduction of the nucleus of a somatic cell from the organism to be cloned into an enucleated egg cell. The resulting cell divides after activation (application of electric shock) into an embryo which may then be implanted into a surrogate mother (reproductive cloning) or used to establish a tissue culture (therapeutic cloning).

Embryonic germ cell:

Pluripotent stem cells derived from early germ cells with properties similar to embryonic stem cells.

Embryonic stem cell:

Cell derived from an early embryo that is not differentiated by itself but may divide either to form (a) other stem cells or (b) cells that differentiate into specialized cell types.

Gene copy number:

Genes naturally exist in varying number of copies in the genome. In relation to genetic modification, gene copy number refers to the number of copies of a transgene that integrate into the host genome.

Gene expression:

The assembly of a product (mainly protein) based on the information coded in a gene.

Gene targeting:

The modification of a certain endogenous gene of an organism based on homologous recombination.

Germ cell:

Cell that produces gametes (egg cells in females, sperm in males).

Heterozygous:

Organism/cell in which the two chromosomes in a pair contain different alleles (alternative forms of a gene) at a given locus. The dominant allele will determine the phenotype.

Homologous recombination:

The exchange of genetic information between two similar or identical strands of DNA (often during meiosis, i.e., the formation of gametes). This process is used for the introduction of DNA sequences into the genome of organisms by gene targeting.

Homozygous:

Organism/cell in which the two chromosomes in a pair contain identical alleles (alternative forms of a gene) at a given locus. The alleles may either be dominant or recessive.

Hemizygous:

Organism/cell with only the given allele present at the given locus of only one of the chromosomes in a pair.

Knockout:

The replacement of a functioning endogenous gene with an inoperable version.

Lentiviruses:

Viruses that are able to infect both dividing and nondividing cells and are therefore used as tools as vectors for gene delivery.

Marker-assisted selection:

Method allowing the selection of breeding animals based on their genotype rather than their phenotype. Regions of the genome that control certain production traits are mapped and DNA markers that control production traits are identified. Animals whose genome contains the desired markers are selected for further breeding.

Motivation:

The internal state of an animal which makes it behave in a certain way; the overall summation of all internal and external factors affecting decision-making.

Pronucleus:

The nucleus of either a sperm (male p.) or an egg (female p.) cell before their fusion inside the egg cell in the process of fertilization. At pronuclear microinjection, the DNA containing the transgene is injected into one of the pronuclei which fuse. After implantation of the egg into a female, the resulting embryo develops into a hemizygous transgenic animal which must be bred to obtain homozygous transgenic animals.

Recombinant protein:

Proteins that are expressed based on recombinant DNA (rDNA). rDNA is obtained by genetic engineering techniques, i.e., the ´artificial´ combination of information contained in the transgene and in the host genome.

Somatic nuclear cell transfer:

See Cloning.

Subjective experience:

Conscious mental state, an experience that the individual is aware of.

Viral vector:

Virus-based vehicle to introduce genetic information into cells making use of the capacity of viruses to transfer their genome into the cells they infect. For transgenesis purposes, they are rendered replication-deficient to avoid replication once the transfer of the genetic information of interest into the cell has taken place.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Danish Centre for Bioethics and Risk Assessment, Institute of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 25, Frederiksberg, Denmark

    Mickey Gjerris (Faculty of Life Sciences), Jesper Lassen (Faculty of Life Sciences) & Peter Sandøe (Faculty of Life Sciences)

  2. Laboratory Animal Science Group, IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Rua Campo Alegre 823, Porto, Portugal

    Reinhard Huber & I Anna S Olsson

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Gjerris, M., Huber, R., Lassen, J., Olsson, I.A.S., Sandøe, P. (2012). Transgenic Livestock , Ethical Concerns and Debate. In: Meyers, R.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_12

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