‡This chapter was reprinted from the first edition of the Springer Index of Viruses. Taxonomy and classification of the virus species described in this chapter may have changed.
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Virion
Morphology: | Spherical |
Envelope: | Yes |
Diameter (nm): | 120–160 |
Length (nm): | |
Structural components: | Core, capsid, envelope |
Buoyant density (g/mL): | 1.23–1.24 |
Buoyant density method: | CsCl |
Lipid composition: | Envelope lipids are derived from cytoplasma membrane of host cell |
Additional information: | Surface projections made by the spike (S) protein; some strains contain a second layer of surface projections made of HE protein |
Genome
Nucleic acid: | RNA | |
Strandedness: | ||
Polarity: | ||
Configuration: | ||
Segment organization: | Segment no. 1 (kb): | 29.0–31.4 |
One segment(s): | 29–31.4 (kb) total (calculated) | |
G + C content (%): | 37.6–41.8 | |
mRNA transcripts: | 7–10 | |
Open reading frames: | 7–10 | |
Additional information: | The genome contains a leader at the 5′ end and a poly(A) tail; genes are arranged in the order 5′-replicase-(HE)-S-E-M-N-3′, with a variable number of other genes that are believed to be non-structural |
Replication
Entry mechanism: | Receptor-mediated endocytosis |
Site of transcription: | Cytoplasm |
Transcriptase: | Virus-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase |
Site of genome replication: | Cytoplasm |
Replicase: | Virus-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase |
Replication intermediate: | Negative-strand RNA intermediate |
Site of virion assembly: | Cytoplasm, the intermediate compartment |
Egress mechanism: | Budding through the pre-Golgi and Golgi to the basolateral (MHV) surface |
Additional information: | Only the membrane (M) and envelope (E) proteins are required for the production of virus-like particles (VLPs) |
History
Year of event | Event | References |
---|---|---|
1949 | Murine hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) associated with encephalomyelitis in mice | Cheever et al (1949) |
1967 | HCoV-OC43 isolated from patients with common cold | McIntosh et al (1967) |
1968 | Electron microscopy reveals that BCoV has a second, short surface protein (HE) | Bridger et al (1978) |
1975 | ICTV approves Coronaviridae family with one genus, Coronavirus | Tyrrell et al (1975) |
1981 | Spike protein shown to be responsible for membrane fusion | Holmes et al (1981) |
1982 | Leader sequence at 5′ of mRNAs is from 5′ of genome (MHV) | Lai et al (1982) |
1982 | First coronavirus gene (N) sequenced (MHV) | Skinner and Siddell (1982) |
1983 | Leader-primed transcription model proposed (MHV); discontinuous transcription during positive strand synthesis | Lai et al (1983) |
1984 | M protein (MHV) is located in Golgi membranes | Tooze et al (1984) |
1985 | Near start of genes is a sequence similar to 3′ end of the leader RNA at 5′ end of the genome (MHV) | Budzilowicz et al (1985) |
1985 | Coronavirus defective RNAs discovered (MHV) | Makino et al (1985) |
1985 | Homologous recombination achieved with MHV | Lai et al (1985) |
1991 | Cell susceptibility to MHV conferred by a receptor of the carcinoembryonic antigen family | Dveksler et al (1991) |
1996 | ICTV recognises Coronaviridae as containing 2 genera: Coronavirus and Torovirus | Cavanagh et al (1997) |
1996 | ICTV recognises the order Nidovirales containing families Coronaviridae and Arteriviridae | Cavanagh et al (1997) |
1996 | M and E proteins sufficient for the formation of virus-like particles | Bos et al (1996); Vennema et al (1996) |
1997 | Insertion of gene for green fluorescent protein into genome of MHV by recombination | Fischer et al (1997) |
2000 | In-vitro construction of chimeric coronaviruses that cross the species barrier | Kuo et al (2000) |
1999 | Insertion of a transcription control sequence into MHV by recombination | Hsue and Masters (1999) |
2002 | A novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV) recognised as aetiological agent of severe acute respiratory disease (SARS) in humans in Guandong Province, China | Drosten et al (2003); Ksiazek et al (2003); Peiris et al (2003) |
2003 | Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 recognised as functional receptor for SARS-CoV | Li et al (2003) |
2003 | SARS-like CoVs identified in wild carnivores sold at live markets in Guandong Province, China | Guan et al (2004); Tu et al (2004) |
2005 | Bats recognised as natural reservoirs of SARS-like CoVs | Lau et al (2005); Li et al (2005) |
2005 | Specific changes detected in the spike protein and accessory proteins 3a and 8 of SARS-CoV | Song et al (2005) |
2005 | Human coronavirus HKU1 identified in the nasopharyngeal aspirates of patients with pneumonia in Hong Kong | Woo et al (2005) |
2005 | Design of wide-spectrum inhibitors of coronavirus main protease | Yang et al (2005) |
2005 | Transcriptomics and proteomics approaches proposed for coronaviral infections | Jiang et al (2005) |
2006 | A common ancestor is recognised for BCoV, HCoV-OC43 and PHEV | Vijgen et al (2006) |
2007 | Identification of coronavirus interferon antagonist proteins | Ye et al (2007) |
2009 | ICTV recognises the family Coronaviridae as containing two subfamilies, Coronavirinae and Torovirinae, with the former including three genera | Carstens (2010) |
2009 | According to the new taxonomy, genus Coronavirus is replaced by genera Alpha-, Beta- and Gammacoronavirus, corresponding to the old antigenic groups | Carstens (2010) |
2009 | BCoV, HCoV-OC43, PHEV, CRCoV and related viruses are recognised as host variants of a unique species, Betacoronavirus-1, of the genus Betacoronavirus | Carstens (2010) |
2009 | SARS-CoV and bat SARS-CoVs are recognised as host variants of a unique species, SARSr-CoV, of the genus Betacoronavirus | Carstens (2010) |
2010 | An important role in the coronavirus lyfe cycle is assigned to the ubiquitin-proteasome system | Raaben et al (2010) |
Genus Members
Species name | Synonyms | Wild-type strains/isolates | Natural host range | Experimental host range | Membership status |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Murine coronavirus | Murine hepatitis virus (MHV); Rat coronavirus (Rat sialodacryoadenitis coronavirus) (RtCoV [SDAV]); Puffinosis coronavirus (PCoV) | MHV: A59, JHM; RtCoV: Parker, SDAV-681 | Mice (MHV), rats (RtCoV); Manx shearwater (PCoV) | Mice (PCoV) | Type species |
Betacoronavirus 1 | Bovine coronavirus (BCoV); Human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43); Human enteric coronavirus (HECoV); Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV); Canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV); Equine coronavirus (ECoV); Bubaline coronavirus (BuCoV); Giraffe coronavirus (GiCoV); Sable antelope coronavirus (SACoV); Sambaar deer coronavirus (SDCoV); Waterbuck coronavirus (WbCoV); White-tailed deer coronavirus (WtDCoV); Elk coronavirus (EkCoV) | BCoV:Mebus; DB2; HCoV-OC43:VR759;VA; PHEV:Minnesota; CRCoV:4182; BuCoV:179/07-11; GiCoV:US/OH3/2003 | Cattle, humans, swine, dogs, horses, ruminants | Turkeys,dogs (BCoV); mice(HCoV-OC43);cattle(HECoV) | Approved member |
Human coronavirus HKU-1 (HCoV-HKU1) | N5P8; Caen; LZ20 | Humans | Approved member | ||
Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5 (Pi-BatCoV-HKU5) | HKU5-1 LMH03f | Bats (Pipistrellus spp.) | Approved member | ||
Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9 (Ro-BatCoV-HKU9) | HKU9-1 BF_005I | Bats (Rousettus spp.) | Approved member | ||
SARS-related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV) | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV); Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related Rhinolopus bat coronavirus (SARSr-Rh-BatCoV); Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related Rhinolopus bat coronavirus 273 (SARSr-Rh-BatCoV-273); Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related Rhinolopus bat coronavirus HKU3 (SARSr-Rh-BatCoV-HKU3) | SARS-CoV: Urbani; Toronto; GDO3 | Humans, wild carnivores (SARS-CoV); bats | Mice, hamsters, cats, ferrets, non-human primates | Approved member |
Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4 (Ty-BatCoV-HKU4) | HKU4-1 B04f | Bats (Tylonycteris spp.) | Approved member |
Nucleotide Sequences
Genomic region | Species | Strain | Nucleotides | Access number | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Complete genome | Murine coronavirus (MHV) | A59-C12 | 31,357 | AF029248 | Leparc-Goffart et al (1997) |
Complete genome | Murine coronavirus (Rt-CoV) | Parker | 31,250 | NC_012936 | Spiro et al (2009) direct submission |
Complete genome | Ty-BatCoV-HKU4 | HKU4-1 B04f | 30,286 | NC_009019 | Woo et al (2007) |
Complete genome | Pi-BatCoV-HKU5 | HKU5-1 LMH03f | 30,482 | NC_009020 | Woo et al (2007) |
Complete genome | Ro-BatCoV-HKU9 | HKU9-1 BF_005I | 29,114 | NC_009021 | Woo et al (2007) |
Complete genome | HCoV-HKU1 | N5P8 genotype A/B | 29,755 | DQ339101 | Woo et al (2006) |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV) | DB2 | 31,023 | DQ811784 | Spiro, et al (2006) direct submission |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (PHEV) | VW572 | 30,480 | DQ011855 | Vijgen et al. (2006) |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (SACoV) | US/OH1/2003 | 30,995 | EF424621 | Zhang et al (2007) direct submission |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (GiCoV) | US/OH3/2003 | 31,002 | EF424623 | Hasoksuz et al (2007) |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (ECoV) | NC99 | 30,992 | EF446615 | Zhang et al (2007) |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (HECoV) | 4408 | 31,029 | FJ415324 | Zhu et al (2008) direct submission |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | 87309 Belgium 2003 | 30,723 | AY903459 | Vijgen et al (2005) |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (SDCoV) | US/OH-WD388/1994 | 30,997 | FJ425189 | Alekseev et al (2008) |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (WbCoV) | US/OH-WD358/1994 | 30,962 | FJ425186 | Alekseev et al (2008) |
Complete genome | Betacoronavirus-1 (WtDCoV) | US/OH-WD470/1994 | 31,020 | FJ425187 | Alekseev et al (2008) |
Complete genome | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | HKU-39849 | 29,742 | AY278491 | Zeng et al (2003) |
Complete genome | SARSr-CoV (SARSr-Rh-BatCoV HKU3) | HKU3-2 | 29,687 | DQ084199 | Lau et al (2005) |
Complete genome | SARSr-CoV (SARSr-Rh-BatCoV 273) | BtCoV/273/2005 | 29,704 | DQ648856 | Tang et al (2006) |
Genomic 3′ end | Betacoronavirus-1 (BuCoV) | Italy/179/07-11 | 9,679 | EU019216 | Decaro et al (2008) |
Genomic 3′ end | Betacoronavirus-1 (CRCoV) | 240/05 | 9,686 | EU999954 | Lorusso et al (2009) |
N protein gene | Murine coronavirus (PCoV) | 1,728 | AJ544718 | Wu et al (2003) direct submission |
Proteins
Protein name | Protein name abbreviation | Number of amino acids | Molecular weight (kDa) | Time of expression | Accession numbers | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Polyprotein 1ab (replicase complex) | pp1ab | 6793–7241 | 740–800 | Throughout | AAR91584; AAP13442; ADE34721; ADE34822; ABG47068; YP_001039961; ADM33557; YP_001039952; BAF75628; YP_459949; YP_003038518; AAT84359; YP_001671996; ADI59786; YP_003029844; ABD75543 | Encoded by two ORFs, 1a and 1b; pseudoknot involved in frameshifting; cleaved to several products, including an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase |
Hemagglutinin esterase | HE | 386–439 | 65 | Throughout | D00764; AAT98579; AAY68296; YP_209232; ABP38257; NP_937949 | Present in all members of the genus except SARSr-CoV, Ro-BatCoV-HKU9, Ty-BatCoV-HKU4, Pi-BatCoV-HKU5; non-essential |
Spike glycoprotein | S | 1241–1376 | 150–220 | Throughout | AAM77000; ACJ66971; ACJ67012; AAF25499; YP_003038522; ACJ66977; CAA83661; AAQ67205; AAF69334; AAF97738; ABD75545; ABN10857; ABG47052; ADM33574; ABN10911; YP_001039962; ADE34733; ACU31051; AAV97986 | Highly glycosylated; forms homotrimers; cleaved to S1 and S2 subunits |
Membrane protein | M | 219–230 | 23–25 | Throughout | AF220295; ABP38308; ABG78752; AAY68301; AAT84357; AAF36439; AAD33106; ABD75508; ABN10854; YP_729208; ABN10890; ADM33569; ABD75325; ADE34793; AAP41041; AAU04653 | N-linked or O-linked glycans; triple-spanning |
Envelope protein | E | 75–88 | 9–12 | Throughout | AAR01017; AAM77003; NP_150081; ABG78751; YP_003029850; ACN89766; ABD75515; ABN10889; ABN10862; YP_729207; ABD75324; ACZ72168; AAP41040 | Essential for virion assembly; E plus M forms virus-like particles |
Nucleocapsid protein | N | 417–470 | 50–60 | Throughout | AAA66397; ACL13001; ABP38321; AAR01019; ACH72650; ABP87995; ACN89747; AAD33104; ABD75581; ABN10900; ABN10939; ABG47067; AAZ41337; ADK66848; ABN10855; AAP50495; ACZ72030 | Highly basic phosphoprotein; forms a helical nucleocapsid |
Non-structural protein 2a (32 kDa) | ns2a (ns2 or ns32kDA) | 194–278 | 30–32 | Throughout | AAF25507; ABV74052; ABG78746; ABP87988; AAA74377; ACN89750; AAU06354; AAF97736; YP_459950 | Unique to Betacoronavirus-1 and Murine coronavirus; ns2a in murine coronavirus; ns2 or ns32kDa in Betacoronavirus-1; gene between pp1ab and HE genes |
Non-structural protein 4 | ns4 | 106–139 | 15 | Throughout | AAF97739; YP_003029849; YP_209234; ACN89764 | Unique to Murine coronavirus; two distinct ORFs (4a, 4b) in Betacoronavirus-1; not essential; may be truncated in some strains |
Non-structural protein 4a (4.9 kDa) | ns4a (ns4.9 kDa) | 29–44 | 4.9 | Throughout | AAF25500; AAF25510; AAG40624; ABV74055; ACL12997; ACJ35490 | Unique to Betacoronavirus-1; not essential for replication; may be truncated in some strains |
Non-structural protein 4b (4.8 kDa) | ns4b (ns4.8 kDa) | 43–45 | 4.7–4.8 | Throughout | AAF25501; AAG60546; AAL40402; ACJ35491 | Unique to Betacoronavirus-1; not essential for replication; may be truncated in some strains |
Non-structural protein 5 (12.7 kDa) | ns5 (ns5a or ns12.7 kDa) | 107–112 | 12.6–13.1 | Throughout | AAF19390; NP_068672; AAF97740; YP_173239; YP_003038502; AAF25502; ACX46843 | Unique to Murine coronavirus/Betcoronavirus-1/HCoV-HKU1; ns5 in MHV;ns12.7 kDa in BCoV; ns4 in HCoV-HKU1; not essential; may be truncated in some strains |
Internal protein | I (N2) | 136–220 | 23 | Throughout | ACN89765; ACN89684; ACT11047; AAF25516; ABG78754; AAY68303; ABP87996; NP_937955; ACT11037; ABC70724 | Unique to Murine coronavirus/Betacoronavirus-1/HCoV-HKU1; ORF is within the N gene; not essential; may be truncated in some strains |
SARS-CoV 3a protein | Sars3a | 274 | 30.9 | Throughout | ACZ72036; ACZ72226; ACQ82726; ADE34813; ADE34734; ABD75316; AAU04635 | Unique to SARSr-CoV; O-glycosylated, triple membrane spanning; forms homotetramers; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 3b protein | Sars3b | 114–154 | 12.8–17.7 | Throughout | ACZ71978; ACB69862; ACB69907; AAU04636; YP_001382387; ABD75317 | Unique to SARSr-CoV; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 6 protein | Sars6 | 63 | 7.5 | Throughout | ABA02272; ACZ72098; ACZ71861; AAP13448; AAU04639; ABD75318; ADE34737; ADE34805 | Unique to SARSr-CoV; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 7a protein | Sars7a | 122 | 13.9 | Throughout | ACQ82731; ACZ72041; ACZ72128; ACZ72216; ACZ72260; NP_828857 | Unique to SARSr-CoV; type I transmembrane protein; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 7b protein | Sars7b | 44 | 5.3 | Throughout | CAJ15124; ABA02274; ABA02274; ACZ71953; BAC81397; AAS44625; ACQ82732; AAU04656; YP_001382367; ABD75329; ADE34728 | Unique to SARSr-CoV; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 8 protein | Sars8 | 122–123 | 13.8 | Throughout | AAZ67036; ABG47066; AAU04657; AAZ67036; AAV91639 | Unique to some SARSr-CoVs (early human and animal SARS-CoVs); present as two distinct ORFs (8a and 8b) in human SARS-CoV due to a 29-nt deletion |
SARS-CoV 8a protein | Sars8a | 39 | 4.3 | Throughout | NP_849176; ACZ72058; ACZ72277; ACZ71804; ACZ71969 | Unique to most human SARSr-CoVs; originating from a 29-nt deletion in ORF8; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 8b protein | Sars8b | 84 | 9.5 | Throughout | CAJ15126; NP_849177; ACZ72059; BAC81413; AAP41046; ACZ71805 | Unique to most human SARSr-CoVs; originating from a 29-nt deletion in ORF8; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 9b protein | Sars9b | 97–98 | 10.8 | Throughout | ACB69891; AAR87585; BAC81401; AAP69659; ACB69857; AAU04659; ADE34821; ADE34810; AAZ67037 | Unique to SARSr-CoV; gene located within N gene; not essential for replication |
SARS-CoV 14 protein | Sars14 | 70 | 7.8 | Throughout | ACZ72047; ADC35508; ACZ72207; ACZ72032; AAU04674; YP_001382371; AAZ67042; AAZ67045 | Unique to SARSr-CoV; also known as ORF10 protein; not essential for replication |
Biology
Species | Permissive cell lines | Tissue tropism | Cytopathic effects | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|
Murine coronavirus (MHV) | Sac(−), L2, DBT, RK13, 17Cl-1 | Intestine, liver, CNS | Syncytia with several cell types | Tropism is virus strain dependent |
Murine coronavirus (RtCoV) | L2, LBC, RBL-02 | Respiratory tract, parotid gland | Syncytia formation | Infects laboratory rats at high prevalence |
Murine coronavirus (PCoV) | NCTC-1469 | Skin, lung, blood | Cell rounding and detachment, syncitya formation | |
Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV) | HRT-18, PK15, PK3, MDBK, BEK-1 | Intestine, respiratory tract | Cell lysis; syncytia if trypsin present | No genetic differences between enteric and respiratory strains |
Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | HRT-18, MA-321, DRG-N | Upper respiratory tract | Cytoplasm vacuolisation, degeneration of monolayer | Infects astrocytes and microglial cells; some strains replicate in the enteric tract |
Betacoronavirus-1 (HECoV) | HRT-18; HFI; J774; C6/36 | Intestinal epithelium | Formation of giant cells and small syncytia | |
Betacoronavirus-1 (PHEV) | Pk-15, IBRS2, SK, SK-K | Intestine and CNS | Syncytia formation | Also replicates in respiratory tract |
Betacoronavirus-1 (CRCoV) | HRT-18 | Respiratory tract | No evident cytopathic effect | Also replicates in the intestine |
Betacoronavirus-1 (ACoV) | HRT-18 | Intestinal epithelium | Cell rounding and detachment | |
Betacoronavirus-1 (ECoV) | HRT-18 | Intestinal epithelium | Round refractile cells, syncytia formation | |
Betacoronavirus-1 (BuCoV) | HRT-18 | Respiratory tract | Syncytia formation and subsequent cell lysis | Poor growth in MDBK cells |
Betacoronavirus-1 (GiCoV, SACoV, SDCoV, WbCoV, WtDCoV, EkCoV) | HRT-18 | Intestinal epithelium | Rounded cells and syncytia formation | |
HCoV-HKU1 | None | Upper and lower respiratory tract | Not applicable | A certain replication has been obtained using human ciliated airway epithelial cell cultures |
SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Vero-E6; FRhK-4; Caco-2; LLC-Mk2; HuH7; RK-13; MA-104; CV-1 | Lower respiratory tract (pneumocytes/macrophages) | Cell rounding, refractivity and cell detachment | Also grows on lymphoid cell cultures causing a non-lytic infection |
Diseases
Disease | Causative agent | Affected organisms | Disease characteristics | Transmission route/vector | Treatment | Geographic distribution |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mouse hepatitis and encephalitis | Murine coronavirus (MHV) | Mice | Hepatitis, diarrhoea, acute or chronic demyelinating encephalomyelitis | Faecal-oral | None | Worldwide |
Rat pneumonia and sialodacryoadenitis | Murine coronavirus (RtCoV, SDAV) | Rats | Pneumonia, rhinitis, sialodacryoadenitis | Aerosol | None | Worldwide |
Puffinosis | Murine coronavirus (PCoV) | Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus) | Blisters on the webs of the feet, conjunctivitis and locking of the ankle joint of the legs | Likely aerosol | None | South-west coast of Wales |
Bovine enteritis and respiratory disease | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV) | Cattle | Acute enteritis in newborns, wynter dysentery in adults, respiratory disease in all ages | Faecal-oral, aerosol | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
Human common cold | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | Humans | Common cold (sneezing, coughing, nasal discharge) | Aerosol | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
Human enteritis | Betacoronavirus-1 (HECoV) | Humans | Diarrhoea | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | A single case reported in the USA |
swine encephalomyelitis, vomiting and wasting disease | Betacoronavirus-1 (PHEV) | Swine | vomiting, weight loss, encephalomyelitis | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
Canine respiratory disease | Betacoronavirus-1 (CRCoV) | Dogs | Cough, nasal discharge, tracheobronchitis | Aerosol | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
Equine enteritis | Betacoronavirus-1 (ECoV) | Horses | Enteritis | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | USA, Japan |
Buffalo enteritis | Betacoronavirus-1 (BuCoV) | Water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) | Enteritis | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | Italy, Bulgaria |
Alpaca enteritis | Betacoronavirus-1 (ACoV) | Alpacas (Vicugna pacos) | Enteritis, fever | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | USA |
Wild-ruminant enteritis | Betacoronavirus-1 (GiCoV, SACoV, SDCoV, WbCoV, WtDCoV, EkCoV) | Wild ruminants (giraffes, sable antelopes, sambaar deer, waterbuck, white-tailed deer, elks) | Enteritis | Faecal-oral | Only symptomatic | USA |
Human respiratory disease | HCoV-HKU1 | Humans | Fever, cough, coryza, sore throat, bronchiolitis, bronchitis, pneumonia and croup | Aerosol | Only symptomatic | Worldwide |
Severe acute respiratory disease | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Humans | Flu-like prodrome, fever, dry cough, non–respiratory symptoms e.g. diarrhoea, myalgia, headache and chills/rigors | Aerosol | Symptomatic, antivirals | East Asia with further spreading to many countries |
Diagnosis
Method | Species | Sample material | Detection target | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Electron microscopy | Murine coronavirus (MHV) | Liver, brain | Particle morphology | Dumitrescu et al (1962) |
DBT cell culture and immunofluorescence assay | Murine coronavirus (MHV) | Liver, brain | Viral antigens | Hirano et al (1976) |
Immunoshostochemistry | Murine coronavirus (MHV) | Liver, brain | Viral antigens | Knobler et al (1981) |
RT-PCR amplification of the membrane protein gene | Murine coronavirus (MHV, RtCoV) | Tissues | Viral RNA | Homberger et al (1991) |
Nested PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Murine coronavirus (MHV) | Faeces | Viral RNA | Yamada et al (1998) |
Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the membrane protein gene | Murine coronavirus (MHV, RtCoV) | Tissues, faeces, cage swipes | Viral RNA | Besselsen et al (2002) |
HRT-18, MDBK or PK15 cell culture and immunofluorescence assay | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV, HCoV-OC43, PHEV, CRCoV, BuCoV, GiCoV, ECoV, ACoV, SACoV, WbCoV, SDCoV, WtDCoV, EkCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral antigens | Peterson et al (1976) |
Electron microscopy | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV, HCoV-OC43, PHEV, CRCoV, BuCoV, GiCoV, ECoV, ACoV, SACoV, WbCoV, SDCoV, WtDCoV, EkCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Particle morphology | Chasey and Lucas (1977) |
Protein A-colloidal gold immunoelectron microscopy | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV, HCoV-OC43, PHEV, CRCoV, BuCoV, GiCoV, ECoV, ACoV, SACoV, WbCoV, SDCoV, WtDCoV, EkCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory samples | Viral antigens | Dea and Garzon (1991) |
Haemagglutination using mouse or chicken erytrocytes | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV, HCoV-OC43, PHEV, CRCoV, BuCoV, GiCoV, ECoV, ACoV, SACoV, WbCoV, SDCoV, WtDCoV, EkCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral haemagglutinin | Storz et al (1992) |
Monoclonal antibody ELISA | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral antigens | Thorns et al (1992) |
Immunoistochemistry | Betacotonavirtus-1 (BCoV) | Paraffin-embedded, formalin-fixed intestines | Viral antigens | Zhang et al (1997) |
Microimmunodot blot assay | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral antigens | Gaber and Kapil (1999) |
Nested RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Cho et al (2001) |
Internally-controlled nested RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Takiuchi et al (2006) |
Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the membrane protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (BCoV, BuCoV, CRCoV) | Faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Decaro et al (2008) |
Nested RT-PCR amplification of the spike protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (PHEV) | Brain, faeces, intestine, respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Sekiguchi et al (2004) |
Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (CRCoV) | Respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Mitchell et al (2009) |
Immunofluorescence assay | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | Nasopharyngeal smears | Viral antigens | McIntosh et al (1978) |
Monoclonal time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | Respiratory specimens | Viral antigens | Hierholzer et al (1994) |
Enzyme immunoassay | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | Respiratory specimens | Viral antigens | Hierholzer et al (1994) |
Nested RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | Respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Vabret et al (2001) |
Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the membrane protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | Respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Vijgen et al (2005) |
Microarray using standard amplification and hybridization techniques | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43) | Respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Lodes et al (2007) |
RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43), HCoV-HKU1 | Respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Dominguez et al (2009) |
Nested PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43), HCoV-HKU1 | Respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Gaunt et al (2010) |
Multiplex real-time RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | Betacoronavirus-1 (HCoV-OC43), HCoV-HKU1 | Respiratory specimens | Viral RNA | Gaunt et al (2010) |
Vero or FRhK cell culture and immunofluorescence assay | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens | Viral antigens | Ksiazek et al (2003) |
Electron microscopy | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens | Particle morphology | Ksiazek et al (2003) |
Nested RT-PCR amplification of the RdRp (nsp1ab) gene | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral RNA | Drosten et al (2003) |
RT-PCR amplification of the RdRp (nsp1ab) gene | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral RNA | Peiris et al (2003) |
Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the RdRp (nsp1ab) gene | SARSe-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral RNA | Poon et al (2003) |
Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the RdRp (nsp1ab) gene | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral RNA | Kuiken, et al (2003) |
Real-time RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral RNA | Kuiken, et al (2003) |
Immunohistochemistry | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues | Viral antigens | Kuiken et al (2003) |
Indirect immunofluorescence assay | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-viral antibodies | Kuiken et al (2003) |
ELISA test using whole virus | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-viral antibodies | Ksiazek et al (2003) |
RT-PCR amplification of the nucleocapsid protein gene | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral RNA | Bermingham et al (2004) |
Virus neutralising antibody test | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-viral antibodies | Zheng et al (2004) |
Immunochromatographic test | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-viral antibodies | Wu et al (2004) |
Western blot | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-viral antibodies | Wu et al (2004) |
Dot blot enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-viral antibodies | Chow et al (2004) |
ELISA test using recombinant nucleocapsid protein | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-viral antibodies | Guo et al (2007) |
Nucleocapsid-based human coronavirus immunoassay | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-nucleocapsid protein antibodies | Severance et al (2008) |
Internally-controlled real-time RT-PCR amplification of the RdRp (nsp1ab) gene | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral RNA | Yu et al (2008) |
Localized surface plasmon coupled fluorescence (LSPCF) fiber-optic biosensor | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Viral antigens (nucleocapsid protein) | Huang et al (2009) |
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based biosensor | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Serum | Anti-SARS-CoV surface antigen antibodies | Park et al (2009) |
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using chemiluminescence | SARSr-CoV (SARS-CoV) | Respiratory specimens, faeces | Viral antigens (nucleocapsid protein) | Fujimoto et al (2008) |
Vaccine Strains
Strain | Attenuation process | Additional information | References |
---|---|---|---|
Betacoronavirus-1 BCoV many strains | Inactivated vaccines | Do not prevent respiratory diseases | Saif (2010) |
Betacoronavirus-1 BCoV many strains | Passage in cell culture | Do not prevent respiratory disease | Saif (2010) |
SARSr-CoV SARS-CoV strain Utah | Double-inactivated, whole-virus vaccine | Not yet licenced; reached the phase 1 clinical trial testing | Spruth et al (2006) |
VRC-SRSDNA015-00-VP vaccine containing the spike gene of SARS-CoV strain Urbani | DNA vaccine expressing the spike protein | Not yet licenced; reached the phase 1 clinical trial testing | Martin et al (2008) |
Vector Constructs
Vector name | Backbone strain | Application | Insertion capacity (kb) | Additional information | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
p25HE | Murine coronavirus MHV-JHM | Expression | 1.4 | Helper-dependent expression system | Liao et al (1995) |
MHV-GFP | Murine coronavirus MHV-A59 | Expression | 0.5 | Genome vector generated by recombination | Fischer et al (1997) |
pMH54 | Murine coronavirus MHV-A59 | Reverse genetics | 10.2 | Used for targeted RNA recombination to obtain chimeric MHVs | Kuo et al (2000) |
pJHM | Murine coronavirus MHV-JHM | Reverse genetics | 10.2 | Used for targeted RNA recombination to obtain chimeric MHVs | Ontiveros et al (2001) |
icMHV-A59 | Murine coronavirus MHV-A59 | Reverse genetics | 31.5 | Full-length genome infectious clone constructed through ligation of seven inserts | Yount et al (2002) |
icSARS-CoV | SARsr-CoV SARS-CoV Urbani | Reverse genetics | 29.7 | Full-length genome infectious clone constructed through ligation of six inserts | Yount et al (2003) |
vMHV-inf-1 | Murine coronavirus MHV-A59 | Reverse genetics | 31.4 | Recombinant vaccinia virus containing the full-length genome of MHV | Coley et al (2005) |
pBAC-SARS-CoV | SARSr-CoV SARS-CoV Urbani | Reverse genetics | 30 | Infectious bacterial artificial chromosome | Almazan et al (2006) |
pBAC-OC43(FL) | Betacoronavirus-1 HCoV-OC43 | Reverse genetics | 30 | Infectious bacterial artificial chromosome | St-Jean et al (2006) |
References
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Decaro, N. (2011). Betacoronavirus‡ . In: Tidona, C., Darai, G. (eds) The Springer Index of Viruses. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-95919-1_57
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