Abstract
Within the class Mollicutes, the order Mycoplasmatales contains more than 160 distinct Mycoplasma species and 8 Ureaplasma species. All these species are characterized by a small genome, the result of regressive evolution from a common ancestor with Firmicutes. This limited genetic information is associated with numerous growth requirements and for most of them, only undefined media are available. As some of the mycoplasmas illustrate among bacteria the best concept of a minimal cell, they were selected among the first bacteria for which the genome was completely sequenced. More recently, their cell biology was further explored by a combination of “omics” approaches, and they were used as platforms for the development of new methods of synthetic biology such as genome cloning in yeast, genome transplantation, and engineering. One of the goals of these studies is the de novo assembly of a minimal cell. The availability of genome sequences for several species, including in some cases for several strains from the same species, resulted in new methods for typing isolates, allowing improved epidemiological studies. The lack of a cell wall and a minimal genome lead to innovative solutions for cellular organization. In some species, there is a cell polarity with a tip involved in adhesion to host cells and in motility. The molecular structure of this tip is complex, and its assembly is coordinated with DNA replication and cell division. A number of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma species are associated with significant pathologies of humans and animals. The infections caused by these organisms are chronic for most of them, which means that the bacteria have developed means to evade from the immune system of their hosts. Immune evasion by mycoplasmas takes several forms. A major one for which abundant evidence exists is variation of surface antigens. A second one, established more indirectly, is molecular mimicry by surface proteins. Finally, invasion of host cells is employed by many Mycoplasma species and may have a role in immune evasion. A number of virulence factors have been identified for different species; they include a small number of secreted toxins, surface polysaccharides, and several enzymes that interfere with their host’s metabolism and produce toxic products. Finally, there is a need for improved methods to control mycoplasmoses as their societal impact, in particular, in agriculture is important and in some cases increasing.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adams C, Pitzer J, Minion FC (2005) In vivo expression analysis of the P97 and P102 paralog families of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Infect Immun 73:7784–7787
Algire MA, Lartigue C, Thomas DW, Assad-Garcia N, Glass JI, Merryman C (2009) New selectable marker for manipulating the simple genomes of Mycoplasma species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53:4429–4432
Allen JL, Noormohammadi AH, Browning GF (2005) The vlhA loci of Mycoplasma synoviae are confined to a restricted region of the genome. Microbiology 151:935–940
Almeida RA, Wannemuehler MJ, Rosenbusch RF (1992) Interaction of Mycoplasma dispar with bovine alveolar macrophages. Infect Immun 60:2914–2919
Alvarez RA, Blaylock MW, Baseman JB (2003) Surface localized glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase of Mycoplasma genitalium binds mucin. Mol Microbiol 48:1417–1425
Amikam D, Razin S, Glaser G (1982) Ribosomal RNA genes in Mycoplasma. Nucleic Acids Res 10:4215–4222
Andreev J, Borovsky Z, Rosenshine I, Rottem S (1995) Invasion of HeLa cells by Mycoplasma penetrans and the induction of tyrosine phosphorylation of a 145-kDa host cell protein. FEMS Microbiol Lett 132:189–194
Atkinson TP, Balish MF, Waites KB (2008) Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathogenesis and laboratory detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. FEMS Microbiol Rev 32:956–973
Balish MF (2006) Subcellular structures of mycoplasmas. Front Biosci 11:2017–2027
Balish MF, Krause DC (2006) Mycoplasmas: a distinct cytoskeleton for wall-less bacteria. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 11:244–255
Balish MF, Ross SM, Fisseha M, Krause DC (2003) Deletion analysis identifies key functional domains of the cytadherence-associated protein HMW2 of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Mol Microbiol 50:1507–1516
Baranowski E, Guiral S, Sagné E, Skapski A, Citti C (2010) Critical role of dispensable genes in Mycoplasma agalactiae interaction with mammalian cells. Infect Immun 78:1542–1551
Barker EN, Helps CR, Peters IR, Darby AC, Radford AD, Tasker S (2011) Complete genome sequence of Mycoplasma haemofelis, a hemotropic mycoplasma. J Bacteriol 193:2060–2061
Barker EN, Tasker S, Day MJ, Warman SM, Woolley K, Birtles R, Georges KC et al (2010) Development and use of real-time PCR to detect and quantify Mycoplasma haemocanis and”Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum” in dogs. Vet Microbiol 140:167–170
Barrett C, Osterloh S, Little PD, McPeak JG (2004) Constraints limiting marketed off-take rates among pastoralists. GL-CRSP (Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program)/University of California, Davis
Baseggio N, Glew MD, Markham PF, Whithear KG, Browning GF (1996) Size and genomic location of the pMGA multigene family of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Microbiology 142(Pt 6):1429–1435
Bébéar C (2012) Editorial commentary: infections due to macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae: now what? Clin Infect Dis 55:1650–1651
Bébéar CM, Bové JM, Bébéar C, Renaudin J (1997) Characterization of Mycoplasma hominis mutations involved in resistance to fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41:269–273
Bébéar CM, Kempf I (2005) Antimicrobial therapy and antimicrobial resistance. In: Blanchard A, Browning G (eds) Mycoplasmas. Molecular biology, pathogenicity and strategies for control. Horizon Bioscience, Norfolk, pp 535–568
Bernet C, Garret M, de Barbeyrac B, Bébéar C, Bonnet J (1989) Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae by using the polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol 27:2492–2496
Besser TE, Frances Cassirer E, Highland MA, Wolff P, Justice-Allen A, Mansfield K, Davis MA, Foreyt W (2013) Bighorn sheep pneumonia: sorting out the cause of a polymicrobial disease. Prev Vet Med 108:85–93
Bhugra B, Voelker LL, Zou N, Yu H, Dybvig K (1995) Mechanism of antigenic variation in Mycoplasma pulmonis: interwoven, site-specific DNA inversions. Mol Microbiol 18:703–714
Bischof DF, Vilei EM, Frey J (2006) Genomic differences between type strain PG1 and field strains of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small-colony type. Genomics 88:633–641
Blanchard A (1997) Mycoplasmas and HIV infection, a possible interaction through immune activation. Wien Klin Wochenschr 109:590–593
Blanchard A, Crabb DM, Dybvig K, Duffy LB, Cassell GH (1992) Rapid detection of tetM in Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum by PCR: tetM confers resistance to tetracycline but not necessarily to doxycycline. FEMS Microbiol Lett 74:277–281
Bolca Topal N, Topal U, Gokalp G, Saraydaroglu O (2007) Eosinophilic mastitis. JBR-BTR 90:170–171
Boonstra E, Lindbaek M, Fidzani B, Bruusgaard D (2001) Cattle eradication and malnutrition in under five’s: a natural experiment in Botswana. Public Health Nutr 4:877–882
Borrel A, Dujardin-Beaumetz E, Jeantet P, Jouan C (1910) Le microbe de la péripneumonie. Ann Inst Pasteur 24:168–179
Bose SR, Balish MF, Krause DC (2009) Mycoplasma pneumoniae cytoskeletal protein HMW2 and the architecture of the terminal organelle. J Bacteriol 191:6741–6748
Bove JM (1999) The one-hundredth anniversary of the first culture of a mollicute, the contagious bovine peripneumonia microbe, by Nocard and Roux, with the collaboration of Borrel, Salimbeni, and Dujardin-Beaumetz. Res Microbiol 150:239–245
Breton M, Tardy F, Dordet-Frisoni E, Sagne E, Mick V, Renaudin J, Sirand-Pugnet P, Citti C, Blanchard A (2012) Distribution and diversity of mycoplasma plasmids: lessons from cryptic genetic elements. BMC Microbiol 12:257
Brown DR, May M, Bradbury JM, Balish MF, Calcutt MJ, Glass JI, Tasker S et al (2011) Genus I. Mycoplasma Nowak 1929, 1349 nom. cons. Jud. Comm. Opin. 22, 1958, 166AL, p. 575–613. In: Krieg NR, Staley JT, Brown DR, Hedlund BP, Paster BJ, Ward NL, Ludwig W, Whitman WB (eds) Bergey’s manual of systematic bacteriology, vol 4, 2nd edn. Springer, New York, NY
Brown DR, Zacher LA, Farmerie WG (2004) Spreading factors of Mycoplasma alligatoris, a flesh-eating mycoplasma. J Bacteriol 186:3922–3927
Burgos R, Wood GE, Young L, Glass JI, Totten PA (2012) RecA mediates MgpB and MgpC phase and antigenic variation in Mycoplasma genitalium, but plays a minor role in DNA repair. Mol Microbiol 85:669–683
Butler SE, Augostini P, Secor WE (2010) Mycoplasma hominis infection of Trichomonas vaginalis is not associated with metronidazole-resistant trichomoniasis in clinical isolates from the United States. Parasitol Res 107:1023–1027
Buzinhani M, Yamaguti M, Oliveira RC, Cortez BA, Marques LM, Machado-Santelli GM, Assumpcao ME, Timenetsky J (2011) Invasion of Ureaplasma diversum in bovine spermatozoids. BMC Res Notes 4:455
Cacciotto C, Addis MF, Pagnozzi D, Chessa B, Coradduzza E, Carcangiu L, Uzzau S, Alberti A, Pittau M (2010) The liposoluble proteome of Mycoplasma agalactiae: an insight into the minimal protein complement of a bacterial membrane. BMC Microbiol 10:225
Calcutt MJ, Lewis MS, Wise KS (2002) Molecular genetic analysis of ICEF, an integrative conjugal element that is present as a repetitive sequence in the chromosome of Mycoplasma fermentans PG18. J Bacteriol 184:6929–6941
Calisto BM, Broto A, Martinelli L, Querol E, Pinol J, Fita I (2012) The EAGR box structure: a motif involved in mycoplasma motility. Mol Microbiol 86:382–393
Catrein I, Herrmann R (2011) The proteome of Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a supposedly “simple” cell. Proteomics 11:3614–3632
Catrein I, Herrmann R, Bosserhoff A, Ruppert T (2005) Experimental proof for a signal peptidase I like activity in Mycoplasma pneumoniae, but absence of a gene encoding a conserved bacterial type I SPase. FEBS J 272:2892–2900
Cazanave C, Charron A, Renaudin H, Bébéar C (2012) Method comparison for molecular typing of French and Tunisian Mycoplasma genitalium-positive specimens. J Med Microbiol 61:500–506
Chernov VM, Gorshkov OV, Chernova OA, Baranova NB, Akopian TA, Trushin MV (2005) Variability of the Vaa cytoadhesin genes in clinical isolates of Mycoplasma hominis. New Microbiol 28:373–376
Chopra-Dewasthaly R, Baumgartner M, Gamper E, Innerebner C, Zimmermann M, Schilcher F, Tichy A et al (2012) Role of Vpma phase variation in Mycoplasma agalactiae pathogenesis. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 66:307–322
Chopra-Dewasthaly R, Citti C, Glew MD, Zimmermann M, Rosengarten R, Jechlinger W (2008) Phase-locked mutants of Mycoplasma agalactiae: defining the molecular switch of high-frequency Vpma antigenic variation. Mol Microbiol 67:1196–1210
Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P (2006) Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life. Science 311:1283–1287
Cloward JM, Krause DC (2009) Mycoplasma pneumoniae J-domain protein required for terminal organelle function. Mol Microbiol 71:1296–1307
Cloward JM, Krause DC (2010) Functional domain analysis of the Mycoplasma pneumoniae co-chaperone TopJ. Mol Microbiol 77:158–169
Cloward JM, Krause DC (2011) Loss of co-chaperone TopJ impacts adhesin P1 presentation and terminal organelle maturation in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Mol Microbiol 81:528–539
Cobb SP (2011) The spread of pathogens through trade in poultry hatching eggs: overview and recent developments. Rev Sci Tech 30:165–175
Cottew GS, Yeats FR (1982) Mycoplasmas and mites in the ears of clinically normal goats. Aust Vet J 59:77–81
Daddow KN (1980) Culex annulirostris as a vector of Eperythrozoon ovis infection in sheep. Vet Parasitol 7:313–317
Dallo SF, Baseman JB (2000) Intracellular DNA replication and long-term survival of pathogenic mycoplasmas. Microb Pathog 29:301–309
Dallo SF, Kannan TR, Blaylock MW, Baseman JB (2002) Elongation factor Tu and E1 beta subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex act as fibronectin binding proteins in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Mol Microbiol 46:1041–1051
De la Fe C, Amores J, Tardy F, Sagne E, Nouvel LX, Citti C (2012) Unexpected genetic diversity of Mycoplasma agalactiae caprine isolates from an endemic geographically restricted area of Spain. BMC Vet Res 8:146
Dedieu L, Mady V, Lefevre PC (1994) Development of a selective polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides S.C. (contagious bovine pleuropneumonia agent). Vet Microbiol 42:327–339
Dégrange S, Renaudin H, Charron A, Bébéar C, Bébéar CM (2008) Tetracycline resistance in Ureaplasma spp. and Mycoplasma hominis: prevalence in Bordeaux, France, from 1999 to 2002 and description of two tet(M)-positive isolates of M. hominis susceptible to tetracyclines. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52:742–744
Delaney NF, Balenger S, Bonneaud C, Marx CJ, Hill GE, Ferguson-Noel N, Tsai P, Rodrigo A, Edwards SV (2012) Ultrafast evolution and loss of CRISPRs following a host shift in a novel wildlife pathogen, Mycoplasma gallisepticum. PLoS Genet 8:e1002511
Delaye L, Moya A (2010) Evolution of reduced prokaryotic genomes and the minimal cell concept: variations on a theme. Bioessays 32:281–287
Dessi D, Delogu G, Emonte E, Catania MR, Fiori PL, Rappelli P (2005) Long-term survival and intracellular replication of Mycoplasma hominis in Trichomonas vaginalis cells: potential role of the protozoon in transmitting bacterial infection. Infect Immun 73:1180–1186
Dhondt AA, Dhondt KV, Hawley DM, Jennelle CS (2007) Experimental evidence for transmission of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in house finches by fomites. Avian Pathol 36:205–208
Djordjevic SP, Cordwell SJ, Djordjevic MA, Wilton J, Minion FC (2004) Proteolytic processing of the Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae cilium adhesin. Infect Immun 72:2791–2802
Dumke R, Hausner M, Jacobs E (2011) Role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) in mediating interactions with the human extracellular matrix. Microbiology 157:2328–2338
Dumke R, Jacobs E (2009) Comparison of commercial and in-house real-time PCR assays used for detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Clin Microbiol 47:441–444
Dumke R, Jacobs E (2011) Culture-independent multi-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Microbiol Methods 86:393–396
Dupuy V, Manso-Silvan L, Barbe V, Thebault P, Dordet-Frisoni E, Citti C, Poumarat F et al (2012) Evolutionary history of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia using next generation sequencing of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides “Small Colony”. PLoS One 7:e46821
Edward DG, Freundt EA, Chanock RM, Fabricant J, Hayflick L, Lemcke RM, Rezin S, Somerson NL, Wittler RG (1967) Recommendations on nomenclature of the order Mycoplasmatales. Science 155:1694–1696
Enright MC, Spratt BG (1999) Multilocus sequence typing. Trends Microbiol 7:482–487
Eterpi M, McDonnell G, Thomas V (2011) Decontamination efficacy against Mycoplasma. Lett Appl Microbiol 52:150–155
Feberwee A, Landman WJ, von Banniseht-Wysmuller T, Klinkenberg D, Vernooij JC, Gielkens AL, Stegeman JA (2006) The effect of a live vaccine on the horizontal transmission of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Avian Pathol 35:359–366
Fernsten PD, Pekny KW, Harper JR, Walker LE (1987) Antigenic mimicry of a human cellular polypeptide by Mycoplasma hyorhinis. Infect Immun 55:1680–1685
Filioussis G, Giadinis ND, Petridou EJ, Karavanis E, Papageorgiou K, Karatzias H (2011) Congenital polyarthritis in goat kids attributed to Mycoplasma agalactiae. Vet Rec 169:364
Fischer A, Shapiro B, Muriuki C, Heller M, Schnee C, Bongcam-Rudloff E, Vilei EM, Frey J, Jores J (2012) The origin of the ‘Mycoplasma mycoides cluster’ coincides with domestication of ruminants. PLoS One 7:e36150
Fleury B, Bergonier D, Berthelot X, Peterhans E, Frey J, Vilei EM (2002) Characterization of P40, a cytadhesin of Mycoplasma agalactiae. Infect Immun 70:5612–5621
Fraga J, Rodriguez N, Fernandez C, Mondeja B, Sariego I, Fernandez-Calienes A, Rojas L (2012) Mycoplasma hominis in Cuban Trichomonas vaginalis isolates: association with parasite genetic polymorphism. Exp Parasitol 131:393–398
Fraser CM, Gocayne JD, White O, Adams MD, Clayton RA, Fleischmann RD, Bult CJ et al (1995) The minimal gene complement of Mycoplasma genitalium. Science 270:397–403
Fujihara Y, Sasaoka F, Suzuki J, Watanabe Y, Fujihara M, Ooshita K, Ano H, Harasawa R (2011) Prevalence of hemoplasma infection among cattle in the western part of Japan. J Vet Med Sci 73:1653–1655
Garcia-Castillo M, Morosini MI, Galvez M, Baquero F, del Campo R, Meseguer MA (2008) Differences in biofilm development and antibiotic susceptibility among clinical Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother 62:1027–1030
Gardella RS, Del Giudice RA (1995) Growth of Mycoplasma hyorhinis cultivar alpha on semisynthetic medium. Appl Environ Microbiol 61:1976–1979
Gibson DG, Benders GA, Andrews-Pfannkoch C, Denisova EA, Baden-Tillson H, Zaveri J, Stockwell TB et al (2008) Complete chemical synthesis, assembly, and cloning of a Mycoplasma genitalium genome. Science 319:1215–1220
Gibson DG, Glass JI, Lartigue C, Noskov VN, Chuang RY, Algire MA, Benders GA et al (2010) Creation of a bacterial cell controlled by a chemically synthesized genome. Science 329:52–56
Giron JA, Lange M, Baseman JB (1996) Adherence, fibronectin binding, and induction of cytoskeleton reorganization in cultured human cells by Mycoplasma penetrans. Infect Immun 64:197–208
Glass JI, Assad-Garcia N, Alperovich N, Yooseph S, Lewis MR, Maruf M, Hutchison CA 3rd, Smith HO, Venter JC (2006) Essential genes of a minimal bacterium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:425–430
Glass JI, Lefkowitz EJ, Glass JS, Heiner CR, Chen EY, Cassell GH (2000) The complete sequence of the mucosal pathogen Ureaplasma urealyticum. Nature 407:757–762
Glew MD, Browning GF, Markham PF, Walker ID (2000) pMGA phenotypic variation in Mycoplasma gallisepticum occurs in vivo and is mediated by trinucleotide repeat length variation. Infect Immun 68:6027–6033
Goh MS, Gorton TS, Forsyth MH, Troy KE, Geary SJ (1998) Molecular and biochemical analysis of a 105 kDa Mycoplasma gallisepticum cytadhesin (GapA). Microbiology 144(Pt 11):2971–2978
Govorun VM, Gushchin AE, Ladygina VG, Abramycheva Nlu, Topol’ lulu (1998) Formation of M. hominis and A. laidlawii resistance to fluoroquinolones. Mol Gen Mikrobiol Virusol 3:16–19
Grau O, Tuppin P, Slizewicz B, Launay V, Goujard C, Bahraoui E, Delfraissy JF, Montagnier L (1998) A longitudinal study of seroreactivity against Mycoplasma penetrans in HIV-infected homosexual men: association with disease progression. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 14:661–667
Groebel K, Hoelzle K, Wittenbrink MM, Ziegler U, Hoelzle LE (2009) Mycoplasma suis invades porcine erythrocytes. Infect Immun 77:576–584
Gruson D, Pereyre S, Renaudin H, Charron A, Bébéar C, Bébéar CM (2005) In vitro development of resistance to six and four fluoroquinolones in Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma hominis, respectively. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49:1190–1193
Hahn TW, Mothershed EA, Waldo RH, Krause DC (1999) Construction and analysis of a modified Tn4001 conferring chloramphenicol resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Plasmid 41:120–124
Halbedel S, Stulke J (2007) Tools for the genetic analysis of Mycoplasma. Int J Med Microbiol 297:37–44
Hamasuna R, Osada Y, Jensen JS (2007) Isolation of Mycoplasma genitalium from first-void urine specimens by coculture with Vero cells. J Clin Microbiol 45:847–850
Hames C, Halbedel S, Hoppert M, Frey J, Stülke J (2009) Glycerol metabolism is important for cytotoxicity of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Bacteriol 191:747–753
Hardy RD, Coalson JJ, Peters J, Chaparro A, Techasaensiri C, Cantwell AM, Kannan TR, Baseman JB, Dube PH (2009) Analysis of pulmonary inflammation and function in the mouse and baboon after exposure to Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin. PLoS One 4:e7562
Hasselbring BM, Jordan JL, Krause RW, Krause DC (2006) Terminal organelle development in the cell wall-less bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:16478–16483
Hasselbring BM, Krause DC (2007) Proteins P24 and P41 function in the regulation of terminal-organelle development and gliding motility in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Bacteriol 189:7442–7449
Hasselbring BM, Sheppard ES, Krause DC (2012) P65 truncation impacts P30 dynamics during Mycoplasma pneumoniae gliding. J Bacteriol 194:3000–3007
Hata A, Honda Y, Asada K, Sasaki Y, Kenri T, Hata D (2008) Mycoplasma hominis meningitis in a neonate: case report and review. J Infect 57:338–343
Hatchel JM, Balish MF (2008) Attachment organelle ultrastructure correlates with phylogeny, not gliding motility properties, in Mycoplasma pneumoniae relatives. Microbiology 154:286–295
Henderson GP, Jensen GJ (2006) Three-dimensional structure of Mycoplasma pneumoniae’s attachment organelle and a model for its role in gliding motility. Mol Microbiol 60:376–385
Henrich B, Hopfe M, Kitzerow A, Hadding U (1999) The adherence-associated lipoprotein P100, encoded by an opp operon structure, functions as the oligopeptide-binding domain OppA of a putative oligopeptide transport system in Mycoplasma hominis. J Bacteriol 181:4873–4878
Henrich B, Schmitt M, Bergmann N, Zanger K, Kubitz R, Häussinger D, Pfeffer K (2010) Mycoplasma salivarium detected in a microbial community with Candida glabrata in the biofilm of an occluded biliary stent. J Med Microbiol 59:239–241
Henry C, Overbeek R, Stevens RL (2010) Building the blueprint of life. Biotechnol J 5:695–704
Hill AC (1984) Mycoplasma cavipharyngis, a new species isolated from the nasopharynx of guinea-pigs. J Gen Microbiol 130:3183–3188
Hill AC (1985) Mycoplasma testudinis, a new species isolated from a tortoise. Int J Syst Bacteriol 35:489–492
Himmelreich R, Plagens H, Hilbert H, Reiner B, Herrmann R (1997) Comparative analysis of the genomes of the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium. Nucleic Acids Res 25:701–712
Himpsl SD, Lockatell CV, Hebel JR, Johnson DE, Mobley HL (2008) Identification of virulence determinants in uropathogenic Proteus mirabilis using signature-tagged mutagenesis. J Med Microbiol 57:1068–1078
Hirai Y, Kukida S, Matsushita O, Nagamachi E, Tomochika K, Kanemasa Y (1992) Membrane lipids of Mycoplasma orale: lipid composition and synthesis of phospholipids. Physiol Chem Phys Med NMR 24:21–27
Hirose K, Kawasaki Y, Kotani K, Abiko K, Sato H (2004) Characterization of a point mutation in the parC gene of Mycoplasma bovirhinis associated with fluoroquinolone resistance. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 51:169–175
Hopfe M, Dahlmanns T, Henrich B (2011) In Mycoplasma hominis the OppA-mediated cytoadhesion depends on its ATPase activity. BMC Microbiol 11:185
Horino A, Kenri T, Sasaki Y, Okamura N, Sasaki T (2009) Identification of a site-specific tyrosine recombinase that mediates promoter inversions of phase-variable mpl lipoprotein genes in Mycoplasma penetrans. Microbiology 155:1241–1249
Horino A, Sasaki Y, Sasaki T, Kenri T (2003) Multiple promoter inversions generate surface antigenic variation in Mycoplasma penetrans. J Bacteriol 185:231–242
Hornok S, Micsutka A, Meli ML, Lutz H, Hofmann-Lehmann R (2011) Molecular investigation of transplacental and vector-borne transmission of bovine haemoplasmas. Vet Microbiol 152:411–414
Huang S, Li JY, Wu J, Meng L, Shou CC (2001) Mycoplasma infections and different human carcinomas. World J Gastroenterol 7:266–269
Hudson P, Gorton TS, Papazisi L, Cecchini K, Frasca S, Geary SJ (2006) Identification of a virulence-associated determinant, dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (lpd), in Mycoplasma gallisepticum through in vivo screening of transposon mutants. Infect Immun 74:931–939
Hughes RA, Hadden RD, Gregson NA, Smith KJ (1999) Pathogenesis of Guillain-Barre syndrome. J Neuroimmunol 100:74–97
Hulcr J, Rountree NR, Diamond SE, Stelinski LL, Fierer N, Dunn RR (2012) Mycangia of ambrosia beetles host communities of bacteria. Microb Ecol 64:784–793
Hutchison CA, Peterson SN, Gill SR, Cline RT, White O, Fraser CM, Smith HO, Venter JC (1999) Global transposon mutagenesis and a minimal Mycoplasma genome. Science 286:2165–2169
Iverson-Cabral SL, Astete SG, Cohen CR, Rocha EP, Totten PA (2006) Intrastrain heterogeneity of the mgpB gene in Mycoplasma genitalium is extensive in vitro and in vivo and suggests that variation is generated via recombination with repetitive chromosomal sequences. Infect Immun 74:3715–3726
Iverson-Cabral SL, Astete SG, Cohen CR, Totten PA (2007) mgpB and mgpC sequence diversity in Mycoplasma genitalium is generated by segmental reciprocal recombination with repetitive chromosomal sequences. Mol Microbiol 66:55–73
Jacobs E, Bartl A, Oberle K, Schiltz E (1995) Molecular mimicry by Mycoplasma pneumoniae to evade the induction of adherence inhibiting antibodies. J Med Microbiol 43:422–429
Jenkins C, Samudrala R, Geary SJ, Djordjevic SP (2008) Structural and functional characterization of an organic hydroperoxide resistance protein from Mycoplasma gallisepticum. J Bacteriol 190:2206–2216
Jenkins C, Wilton JL, Minion FC, Falconer L, Walker MJ, Djordjevic SP (2006) Two domains within the Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae cilium adhesin bind heparin. Infect Immun 74:481–487
Jensen JS (2004) Mycoplasma genitalium: the aetiological agent of urethritis and other sexually transmitted diseases. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 18:1–11
Jensen JS (2012) Protocol for the detection of Mycoplasma genitalium by PCR from clinical specimens and subsequent detection of macrolide resistance-mediating mutations in region V of the 23S rRNA gene. Methods Mol Biol 903:129–139
Jimena ON, Laura JM, Elena MM, Alonso NH, Teresa QM (2009) Association of Raillietia caprae with the presence of mycoplasmas in the external ear canal of goats. Prev Vet Med 92:150–153
Johansson KE, Pettersson B (2002) Taxonomy of Mollicutes. In: Razin S, Herrmann R (eds) Molecular biology and pathogenicity of mycoplasmas. Kluwer/Academic/Plenum, New York, pp 1–29
Johnson C, Kannan TR, Baseman JB (2009) Characterization of a unique ADP-ribosyltransferase of Mycoplasma penetrans. Infect Immun 77:4362–4370
Jordan JL, Chang HY, Balish MF, Holt LS, Bose SR, Hasselbring BM, Waldo RH 3rd, Krunkosky TM, Krause DC (2007) Protein P200 is dispensable for Mycoplasma pneumoniae hemadsorption but not gliding motility or colonization of differentiated bronchial epithelium. Infect Immun 75:518–522
Juhas M, Eberl L, Glass JI (2011) Essence of life: essential genes of minimal genomes. Trends Cell Biol 21:562–568
Jurkovic DA, Hughes MR, Balish MF (2013) Analysis of energy sources for Mycoplasma penetrans gliding motility. FEMS Microbiol Lett 338:39–45
Jurkovic DA, Newman JT, Balish MF (2012) Conserved terminal organelle morphology and function in Mycoplasma penetrans and Mycoplasma iowae. J Bacteriol 194:2877–2883
Justice-Allen A, Trujillo J, Corbett R, Harding R, Goodell G, Wilson D (2010) Survival and replication of Mycoplasma species in recycled bedding sand and association with mastitis on dairy farms in Utah. J Dairy Sci 93:192–202
Kannan TR, Coalson JJ, Cagle M, Musatovova O, Hardy RD, Baseman JB (2011) Synthesis and distribution of CARDS toxin during Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in a murine model. J Infect Dis 204:1596–1604
Kapatais-Zoumbos K, Chandler DK, Barile MF (1985) Survey of immunoglobulin A protease activity among selected species of Ureaplasma and Mycoplasma: specificity for host immunoglobulin A. Infect Immun 47:704–709
Kasai T, Nakane D, Ishida H, Ando H, Kiso M, Miyata M (2013) Role of binding in Mycoplasma mobile and Mycoplasma pneumoniae gliding analyzed through inhibition by synthesized sialylated compounds. J Bacteriol 195:429–435
Kenri T, Taniguchi R, Sasaki Y, Okazaki N, Narita M, Izumikawa K, Umetsu M, Sasaki T (1999) Identification of a new variable sequence in the P1 cytadhesin gene of Mycoplasma pneumoniae: evidence for the generation of antigenic variation by DNA recombination between repetitive sequences. Infect Immun 67:4557–4562
Keystone EC, Cunningham AJ, Metcalfe A, Kennedy M, Quinn PA (1982) Role of antibody in the protection of mice from arthritis induced by Mycoplasma pulmonis. Clin Exp Immunol 47:253–259
Kilian M, Freundt EA (1984) Exclusive occurrence of an extracellular protease capable of cleaving the hinge region of human immunoglobulin A1 in strains of Ureaplasma urealyticum. Isr J Med Sci 20:938–941
King GM, Judd C, Kuske CR, Smith C (2012) Analysis of stomach and gut microbiomes of the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) from Coastal Louisiana, USA. PLoS One 7:e51475
Kirchhoff H, Rosengarten R, Lotz W, Fischer M, Lopatta D (1984) Flask-shaped mycoplasmas: properties and pathogenicity for man and animals. Isr J Med Sci 20:848–853
Kirchner H, Bauer A, Moritz T, Herbst F (1986) Lymphocyte activation and induction of interferon gamma in human leucocyte cultures by the mitogen in Mycoplasma arthritidis supernatant (MAS). Scand J Immunol 24:609–613
Kitzerow A, Hadding U, Henrich B (1999) Cyto-adherence studies of the adhesin P50 of Mycoplasma hominis. J Med Microbiol 48:485–493
Kitzerow A, Henrich B (2001) The cytosolic HinT protein of Mycoplasma hominis interacts with two membrane proteins. Mol Microbiol 41:279–287
Klement ML, Ojemyr L, Tagscherer KE, Widmalm G, Wieslander A (2007) A processive lipid glycosyltransferase in the small human pathogen Mycoplasma pneumoniae: involvement in host immune response. Mol Microbiol 65:1444–1457
Kokotovic B, Friis NF, Jensen JS, Ahrens P (1999) Amplified-fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting of Mycoplasma species. J Clin Microbiol 37:3300–3307
Koonin EV (2000) How many genes can make a cell: the minimal-gene-set concept. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 1:99–116
Kornspan JD, Rottem S (2012) The phospholipid profile of mycoplasmas. J Lipids 2012:640762
Kornspan JD, Tarshis M, Rottem S (2011) Adhesion and biofilm formation of Mycoplasma pneumoniae on an abiotic surface. Arch Microbiol 193:833–836
Krause DC, Leith DK, Wilson RM, Baseman JB (1982) Identification of Mycoplasma pneumoniae proteins associated with hemadsorption and virulence. Infect Immun 35:809–817
Kumar PS, Mason MR, Brooker MR, O’Brien K (2012) Pyrosequencing reveals unique microbial signatures associated with healthy and failing dental implants. J Clin Periodontol 39:425–433
Kwon HJ, Kang JO, Cho SH, Kang HB, Kang KA, Kim JK, Kang YS et al (2004) Presence of human mycoplasma DNA in gastric tissue samples from Korean chronic gastritis patients. Cancer Sci 95:311–315
Lancaster JE, Fabricant J (1988) The history of avian medicine in the United States. IX. Events in the history of avian mycoplasmosis 1905–70. Avian Dis 32:607–623
Lartigue C, Glass JI, Alperovich N, Pieper R, Parmar PP, Hutchison CA 3rd, Smith HO, Venter JC (2007) Genome transplantation in bacteria: changing one species to another. Science 317:632–638
Lartigue C, Vashee S, Algire MA, Chuang RY, Benders GA, Ma L, Noskov VN et al (2009) Creating bacterial strains from genomes that have been cloned and engineered in yeast. Science 325:1693–1696
Le Carrou J, Laurentie M, Kobisch M, Gautier-Bouchardon AV (2006) Persistence of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in experimentally infected pigs after marbofloxacin treatment and detection of mutations in the parC gene. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50:1959–1966
Lemaitre M, Henin Y, Destouesse F, Ferrieux C, Montagnier L, Blanchard A (1992) Role of mycoplasma infection in the cytopathic effect induced by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in infected cell lines. Infect Immun 60:742–748
Lemcke RM, Pland J (1980) Mycoplasma fastidiosum: a new species from horses. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 30:151–162
Ley DH, Berkhoff JE, McLaren JM (1996) Mycoplasma gallisepticum isolated from house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) with conjunctivitis. Avian Dis 40:480–483
Li W, Raoult D, Fournier PE (2009) Bacterial strain typing in the genomic era. FEMS Microbiol Rev 33:892–916
Lindstedt BA (2005) Multiple-locus variable number tandem repeats analysis for genetic fingerprinting of pathogenic bacteria. Electrophoresis 26:2567–2582
Litamoi JK, Ayelet G, Rweyemamu MM (2005) Evaluation of the xerovac process for the preparation of heat tolerant contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) vaccine. Vaccine 23:2573–2579
Liu L, Dybvig K, Panangala VS, van Santen VL, French CT (2000) GAA trinucleotide repeat region regulates M9/pMGA gene expression in Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Infect Immun 68:871–876
Lluch-Senar M, Querol E, Pinol J (2010) Cell division in a minimal bacterium in the absence of ftsZ. Mol Microbiol 78:278–289
Lo SC, Dawson MS, Wong DM, Newton PB 3rd, Sonoda MA, Engler WF, Wang RY et al (1989) Identification of Mycoplasma incognitus infection in patients with AIDS: an immunohistochemical, in situ hybridization and ultrastructural study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 41:601–616
Lo SC, Hayes MM, Wang RY, Pierce PF, Kotani H, Shih JW (1991a) Newly discovered mycoplasma isolated from patients infected with HIV. Lancet 338:1415–1418
Lo SC, Tsai S, Benish JR, Shih JW, Wear DJ, Wong DM (1991b) Enhancement of HIV-1 cytocidal effects in CD4+ lymphocytes by the AIDS-associated mycoplasma. Science 251:1074–1076
Lockaby SB, Hoerr FJ, Lauerman LH, Smith BF, Samoylov AM, Toivio-Kinnucan MA, Kleven SH (1999) Factors associated with virulence of Mycoplasma synoviae. Avian Dis 43:251–261
Lorenzon S, Arzul I, Peyraud A, Hendrikx P, Thiaucourt F (2003) Molecular epidemiology of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia by multilocus sequence analysis of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides biotype SC strains. Vet Microbiol 93:319–333
Luo W, Yu H, Cao Z, Schoeb TR, Marron M, Dybvig K (2008) Association of Mycoplasma arthritidis mitogen with lethal toxicity but not with arthritis in mice. Infect Immun 76:4989–4998
Lutkenhaus J (2012) The ParA/MinD family puts things in their place. Trends Microbiol 20:411–418
Lysnyansky I, Gerchman I, Perk S, Levisohn S (2008) Molecular characterization and typing of enrofloxacin-resistant clinical isolates of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Avian Dis 52:685–689
Ma L, Jensen JS, Mancuso M, Hamasuna R, Jia Q, McGowin CL, Martin DH (2010) Genetic variation in the complete MgPa operon and its repetitive chromosomal elements in clinical strains of Mycoplasma genitalium. PLoS One 5:e15660
Ma L, Jensen JS, Mancuso M, Hamasuna R, Jia Q, McGowin CL, Martin DH (2012) Variability of trinucleotide tandem repeats in the MgPa operon and its repetitive chromosomal elements in Mycoplasma genitalium. J Med Microbiol 61:191–197
Ma L, Jensen JS, Myers L, Burnett J, Welch M, Jia Q, Martin DH (2007) Mycoplasma genitalium: an efficient strategy to generate genetic variation from a minimal genome. Mol Microbiol 66:220–236
Ma L, Taylor S, Jensen JS, Myers L, Lillis R, Martin DH (2008) Short tandem repeat sequences in the Mycoplasma genitalium genome and their use in a multilocus genotyping system. BMC Microbiol 8:130
Machado CX, Pinto PM, Zaha A, Ferreira HB (2009) A peroxiredoxin from Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae with a possible role in H2O2 detoxification. Microbiology 155:3411–3419
Mahairas GG, Minion FC (1989) Random insertion of the gentamicin resistance transposon Tn4001 in Mycoplasma pulmonis. Plasmid 21:43–47
Malandain H (2004) IgE antibody in the serum – the main problem is cross-reactivity. Allergy 59:229; author reply 230
Manhart LE, Mostad SB, Baeten JM, Astete SG, Mandaliya K, Totten PA (2008) High Mycoplasma genitalium organism burden is associated with shedding of HIV-1 DNA from the cervix. J Infect Dis 197:733–736
Maniloff J (2002) Phylogeny and evolution. In: Razin S, Herrmann R (eds) Molecular biology and pathogenicity of mycoplasmas. Kluwer/Academic/Plenum, New York, pp 31–43
Manso-Silvan L, Dupuy V, Chu Y, Thiaucourt F (2011) Multi-locus sequence analysis of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae for the molecular epidemiology of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Vet Res 42:86
Manso-Silvan L, Perrier X, Thiaucourt F (2007) Phylogeny of the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster based on analysis of five conserved protein-coding sequences and possible implications for the taxonomy of the group. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57:2247–2258
Manso-Silvan L, Vilei EM, Sachse K, Djordjevic SP, Thiaucourt F, Frey J (2009) Mycoplasma leachii sp. nov. as a new species designation for Mycoplasma sp. bovine group 7 of Leach, and reclassification of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides LC as a serovar of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 59:1353–1358
Maquelin K, Hoogenboezem T, Jachtenberg JW, Dumke R, Jacobs E, Puppels GJ, Hartwig NG, Vink C (2009) Raman spectroscopic typing reveals the presence of carotenoids in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Microbiology 155:2068–2077
March JB, Gammack C, Nicholas R (2000) Rapid detection of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia using a Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae capsular polysaccharide-specific antigen detection latex agglutination test. J Clin Microbiol 38:4152–4159
March JB, Waite ER, Litamoi JK (2002) Re-suspension of T(1)44 vaccine cultures of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp mycoides SC in 1 molar MgSO(4) causes a drop in pH and a rapid reduction in titre. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 34:97–103
Mardassi BB, Aissani N, Moalla I, Dhahri D, Dridi A, Mlik B (2012) Evidence for the predominance of a single tet(M) gene sequence type in tetracycline-resistant Ureaplasma parvum and Mycoplasma hominis isolates from Tunisian patients. J Med Microbiol 61:1254–1261
Marenda M, Barbe V, Gourgues G, Mangenot S, Sagne E, Citti C (2006) A new integrative conjugative element occurs in Mycoplasma agalactiae as chromosomal and free circular forms. J Bacteriol 188:4137–4141
Mariner JC, Catley A (2003) Towards sustainable CBPP control programmes for Africa, The dynamics of CBPP endemism and development of effective control strategies. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Corporate Document Repository, Rome
Markham F, Noormohammadi AH (2005) Diagnosis of mycoplasmosis in animals. In: Blanchard A, Browning G (eds) Mycoplasmas. Molecular biology, pathogenicity and strategies for control. Horizon Bioscience, Norfolk, pp 355–382
Markham PF, Duffy MF, Glew MD, Browning GF (1999) A gene family in Mycoplasma imitans closely related to the pMGA family of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Microbiology 145(Pt 8):2095–2103
Markham PF, Glew MD, Browning GF, Whithear KG, Walker ID (1998) Expression of two members of the pMGA gene family of Mycoplasma gallisepticum oscillates and is influenced by pMGA-specific antibodies. Infect Immun 66:2845–2853
Mason RW, Statham P (1991a) The determination of the level of Eperythrozoon ovis parasitaemia in chronically infected sheep and its significance to the spread of infection. Aust Vet J 68:115–116
Mason RW, Statham P (1991b) Susceptibility of sheep and goats to Eperythrozoon ovis infection. Aust Vet J 68:116–117
May M, Brown DR (2008) Genetic variation in sialidase and linkage to .-acetylneuraminate catabolism in Mycoplasma synoviae. Microb Pathog 45:38–44
May M, Brown DR (2011) Diversity of expressed vlhA adhesin sequences and intermediate hemagglutination phenotypes in Mycoplasma synoviae. J Bacteriol 193:2116–2121
May M, Kleven SH, Brown DR (2007) Sialidase activity in Mycoplasma synoviae. Avian Dis 51:829–833
May M, Szczepanek SM, Frasca S, Gates AE, Demcovitz DL, Moneypenny CG, Brown DR, Geary SJ (2012) Effects of sialidase knockout and complementation on virulence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Vet Microbiol 157:91–95
Mayor D, Jores J, Korczak BM, Kuhnert P (2008) Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae: a diverse pathogen with limited clonality. Vet Microbiol 127:63–72
McAuliffe L, Ellis RJ, Miles K, Ayling RD, Nicholas RA (2006) Biofilm formation by Mycoplasma species and its role in environmental persistence and survival. Microbiology 152:913–922
McAuliffe L, Gosney F, Hlusek M, de Garnica ML, Spergser J, Kargl M, Rosengarten R et al (2011) Multilocus sequence typing of Mycoplasma agalactiae. J Med Microbiol 60:803–811
McGowin CL, Anderson-Smits C (2011) Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women. PLoS Pathog 7:e1001324
Messick JB, Santos AP, Guimaraes AM (2011) Complete genome sequences of two hemotropic mycoplasmas, Mycoplasma haemofelis strain Ohio2 and Mycoplasma suis Strain Illinois. J Bacteriol 193:2068–2069
Messick JB, Walker PG, Raphael W, Berent L, Shi X (2002) ‘Candidatus mycoplasma haemodidelphidis’ sp. nov., ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae’ sp. nov. and Mycoplasma haemocanis comb. nov., haemotrophic parasites from a naturally infected opossum (Didelphis virginiana), alpaca (Lama pacos) and dog (Canis familiaris): phylogenetic and secondary structural relatedness of their 16S rRNA genes to other mycoplasmas. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 52:693–698
Mierzejewska J, Jagura-Burdzy G (2012) Prokaryotic ParA-ParB-parS system links bacterial chromosome segregation with the cell cycle. Plasmid 67:1–14
Lauran N (2010) A step to artificial life: manmade DNA powers cell. Associated Press, May 20, 2010 (Also published in The Seattle Times, May 20, 2010. http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2011916800_cell21.html)
Milne JL, Subramaniam S (2009) Cryo-electron tomography of bacteria: progress, challenges and future prospects. Nat Rev Microbiol 7:666–675
Mingorance J, Rivas G, Velez M, Gomez-Puertas P, Vicente M (2010) Strong FtsZ is with the force: mechanisms to constrict bacteria. Trends Microbiol 18:348–356
Minion FC, Goguen JD (1985) Trypsin-sensitive, bovine serum albumin-dependent hemolysis activity in Mycoplasma pulmonis. Infect Immun 49:440–442
Minion FC, Jarvill-Taylor K (1994) Membrane-associated hemolysin activities in mycoplasmas. FEMS Microbiol Lett 116:101–106
Miyata M (2010) Unique centipede mechanism of mycoplasma gliding. Annu Rev Microbiol 64:519–537
Miyata M, Ryu WS, Berg HC (2002) Force and velocity of Mycoplasma mobile gliding. J Bacteriol 184:1827–1831
Mohammed HO, Carpenter TE, Yamamoto R (1987) Economic impact of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and M. synoviae in commercial layer flocks. Avian Dis 31:477–482
Moitinho-Silva L, Heineck BL, Reolon LA, Paes JA, Klein CS, Rebelatto R, Schrank IS, Zaha A, Ferreira HB (2012) Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae type I signal peptidase: expression and evaluation of its diagnostic potential. Vet Microbiol 154:282–291
Montague MG, Lartigue C, Vashee S (2012) Synthetic genomics: potential and limitations. Curr Opin Biotechnol 23:659–665
Mu HH, Sawitzke AD, Cole BC (2000) Modulation of cytokine profiles by the Mycoplasma superantigen Mycoplasma arthritidis mitogen parallels susceptibility to arthritis induced by M. arthritidis. Infect Immun 68:1142–1149
Muir MT, Cohn SM, Louden C, Kannan TR, Baseman JB (2011) Novel toxin assays implicate Mycoplasma pneumoniae in prolonged ventilator course and hypoxemia. Chest 139:305–310
Nagai R, Miyata M (2006) Gliding motility of Mycoplasma mobile can occur by repeated binding to .-acetylneuraminyllactose (sialyllactose) fixed on solid surfaces. J Bacteriol 188:6469–6475
Nakane D, Miyata M (2007) Cytoskeletal “jellyfish” structure of Mycoplasma mobile. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:19518–19523
Nakane D, Miyata M (2009) Cytoskeletal asymmetrical dumbbell structure of a gliding mycoplasma, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, revealed by negative-staining electron microscopy. J Bacteriol 191:3256–3264
Neimark H, Johansson KE, Rikihisa Y, Tully JG (2001) Proposal to transfer some members of the genera Haemobartonella and Eperythrozoon to the genus Mycoplasma with descriptions of ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemofelis’, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris’, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma wenyonii’. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 51:891–899
Neyrolles O, Brenner C, Prevost MC, Fontaine T, Montagnier L, Blanchard A (1998) Identification of two glycosylated components of Mycoplasma penetrans: a surface-exposed capsular polysaccharide and a glycolipid fraction. Microbiology 144(Pt 5):1247–1255
Niang M, Rosenbusch RF, DeBey MC, Niyo Y, Andrews JJ, Kaeberle ML (1998) Field isolates of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae exhibit distinct cytopathic effects in ovine tracheal organ cultures. Zentralbl Veterinarmed A 45:29–40
Nielsen MH, Nielsen R (1975) Electron microscopy of Trichomonas vaginalis Donné interaction with vaginal epithelium in human trichomoniasis. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 83:381–389
Nikol’skii SN, Slipchenki SN (1969) Experiments in the transmission of Eperythrozoon ovis by the ticks H. plumbeum and Rh. bursa. Veterinariia 5:46, Russia
Nocard E, Roux E (1898) Le microbe de la péripneumonie. Ann Inst Pasteur 12:240–262
Noormohammadi AH, Markham PF, Duffy MF, Whithear KG, Browning GF (1998) Multigene families encoding the major hemagglutinins in phylogenetically distinct mycoplasmas. Infect Immun 66:3470–3475
Noormohammadi AH, Markham PF, Kanci A, Whithear KG, Browning GF (2000) A novel mechanism for control of antigenic variation in the haemagglutinin gene family of Mycoplasma synoviae. Mol Microbiol 35:911–923
Nowak J (1929) Morphologie, nature et cycle évolutif du microbe de la péripneumonie. Ann Inst Pasteur 43:1330–1352
Ochman H, Lerat E, Daubin V (2005) Examining bacterial species under the specter of gene transfer and exchange. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102(Suppl 1):6595–6599
Osawa M, Erickson HP (2006) FtsZ from divergent foreign bacteria can function for cell division in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 188:7132–7140
Papazisi L, Frasca S, Gladd M, Liao X, Yogev D, Geary SJ (2002) GapA and CrmA coexpression is essential for Mycoplasma gallisepticum cytadherence and virulence. Infect Immun 70:6839–6845
Paralanov V, Lu J, Duffy LB, Crabb DM, Shrivastava S, Methé BA, Inman J et al (2012) Comparative genome analysis of 19 Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum strains. BMC Microbiol 12:88
Pereyre S, Gonzalez P, De Barbeyrac B, Darnige A, Renaudin H, Charron A, Raherison S, BÉbÉar C, BÉbÉar CM (2002) Mutations in 23S rRNA account for intrinsic resistance to macrolides in Mycoplasma hominis and Mycoplasma fermentans and for acquired resistance to macrolides in M. hominis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46:3142–3150
Pereyre S, Renaudin H, Touati A, Charron A, Peuchant O, Hassen AB, Bébéar C, Bébéar CM (2010) Detection and susceptibility testing of Mycoplasma amphoriforme isolates from patients with respiratory tract infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 16:1007–1009
Pereyre S, Sirand-Pugnet P, Beven L, Charron A, Renaudin H, Barre A, Avenaud P et al (2009) Life on arginine for Mycoplasma hominis: clues from its minimal genome and comparison with other human urogenital mycoplasmas. PLoS Genet 5:e1000677
Perez G, Skurnick JH, Denny TN, Stephens R, Kennedy CA, Regivick N, Nahmias A et al (1998) Herpes simplex type II and Mycoplasma genitalium as risk factors for heterosexual HIV transmission: report from the heterosexual HIV transmission study. Int J Infect Dis 3:5–11
Peters J, Singh H, Brooks EG, Diaz J, Kannan TR, Coalson JJ, Baseman JG, Cagle M, Baseman JB (2011) Persistence of community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome toxin-producing Mycoplasma pneumoniae in refractory asthma. Chest 140:401–407
Peuchant O, Menard A, Renaudin H, Morozumi M, Ubukata K, Bébéar CM, Pereyre S (2009) Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in France directly detected in clinical specimens by real-time PCR and melting curve analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 64:52–58
Piboonpocanun S, Chiba H, Mitsuzawa H, Martin W, Murphy RC, Harbeck RJ, Voelker DR (2005) Surfactant protein A binds Mycoplasma pneumoniae with high affinity and attenuates its growth by recognition of disaturated phosphatidylglycerols. J Biol Chem 280:9–17
Pilo P, Vilei EM, Peterhans E, Bonvin-Klotz L, Stoffel MH, Dobbelaere D, Frey J (2005) A metabolic enzyme as a primary virulence factor of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony. J Bacteriol 187:6824–6831
Pinho L, Thompson G, Rosenbusch R, Carvalheira J (2012) Genotyping of Mycoplasma bovis isolates using multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis. J Microbiol Methods 88:377–385
Pitcher DG, Windsor D, Windsor H, Bradbury JM, Yavari C, Jensen JS, Ling C, Webster D (2005) Mycoplasma amphoriforme sp. nov., isolated from a patient with chronic bronchopneumonia. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 55:2589–2594
Polissi A, Pontiggia A, Feger G, Altieri M, Mottl H, Ferrari L, Simon DC (1998) Large-scale identification of virulence genes from Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 66:5620–5629
Pour-El I, Adams C, Minion FC (2002) Construction of mini-Tn4001tet and its use in Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Plasmid 47:129–137
Prullage JB, Williams RE, Gaafar SM (1993) On the transmissibility of Eperythrozoon suis by Stomoxys calcitrans and Aedes aegypti. Vet Parasitol 50:125–135
Raccach M, Rottem S, Razin S (1975) Survival of frozen mycoplasmas. Appl Microbiol 30:167–171
Radestock U, Bredt W (1977) Motility of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Bacteriol 129:1495–1501
Raherison S, Gonzalez P, Renaudin H, Charron A, Bébéar C, Bébéar CM (2002) Evidence of active efflux in resistance to ciprofloxacin and to ethidium bromide by Mycoplasma hominis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46:672–679
Raherison S, Gonzalez P, Renaudin H, Charron A, Bébéar C, Bébéar CM (2005) Increased expression of two multidrug transporter-like genes is associated with ethidium bromide and ciprofloxacin resistance in Mycoplasma hominis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49:421–424
Rappelli P, Addis MF, Carta F, Fiori PL (1998) Mycoplasma hominis parasitism of Trichomonas vaginalis. Lancet 352:1286
Razin S, Efrati H, Kutner S, Rottem S (1982) Cholesterol and phospholipid uptake by mycoplasmas. Rev Infect Dis 4(Suppl):S85–S92
Reinhardt AK, Kempf I, Kobisch M, Gautier-Bouchardon AV (2002) Fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycoplasma gallisepticum: DNA gyrase as primary target of enrofloxacin and impact of mutations in topoisomerases on resistance level. J Antimicrob Chemother 50:589–592
Relich RF, Balish MF (2011) Insights into the function of Mycoplasma pneumoniae protein P30 from orthologous gene replacement. Microbiology 157:2862–2870
Relich RF, Friedberg AJ, Balish MF (2009) Novel cellular organization in a gliding mycoplasma, Mycoplasma insons. J Bacteriol 191:5312–5314
Robertson JA (1978) Bromothymol blue broth: improved medium for detection of Ureaplasma urealyticum (T-strain mycoplasma). J Clin Microbiol 7:127–132
Robertson JA, Stemler ME, Stemke GW (1984) Immunoglobulin A protease activity of Ureaplasma urealyticum. J Clin Microbiol 19:255–258
Rodwell AW (1983) Defined and partly defined media. In: Razin S, Tully JG (eds) Methods in mycoplasmology. Molecular characterization, vol I. Academic, New York, pp 163–172
Rogers MJ, Simmons J, Walker RT, Weisburg WG, Woese CR, Tanner RS, Robinson IM et al (1985) Construction of the mycoplasma evolutionary tree from 5S rRNA sequence data. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82:1160–1164
Romero R, Garite TJ (2008) Twenty percent of very preterm neonates (23–32 weeks of gestation) are born with bacteremia caused by genital mycoplasmas. Am J Obstet Gynecol 198:1–3
Ron Y, Flitman-Tene R, Dybvig K, Yogev D (2002) Identification and characterization of a site-specific tyrosine recombinase within the variable loci of Mycoplasma bovis, Mycoplasma pulmonis and Mycoplasma agalactiae. Gene 292:205–211
Rottem S (1980) Membrane lipids of mycoplasmas. Biochim Biophys Acta 604:65–90
Rottem S (2002) Choline-containing lipids in mycoplasmas. Microbes Infect 4:963–968
Rottem S, Adar L, Gross Z, Ne’eman Z, Davis PJ (1986) Incorporation and modification of exogenous phosphatidylcholines by mycoplasmas. J Bacteriol 167:299–304
Sachse K, Grajetzki C, Rosengarten R, Hanel I, Heller M, Pfutzner H (1996) Mechanisms and factors involved in Mycoplasma bovis adhesion to host cells. Zentralbl Bakteriol 284:80–92
Salman M, Rottem S (1995) The cell membrane of Mycoplasma penetrans: lipid composition and phospholipase A1 activity. Biochim Biophys Acta 1235:369–377
Sanchez-Pescador R, Brown JT, Roberts M, Urdea MS (1988) The nucleotide sequence of the tetracycline resistance determinant tetM from Ureaplasma urealyticum. Nucleic Acids Res 16:1216–1217
Sasaki Y, Blanchard A, Watson HL, Garcia S, Dulioust A, Montagnier L, Gougeon ML (1995) In vitro influence of Mycoplasma penetrans on activation of peripheral T lymphocytes from healthy donors or human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Infect Immun 63:4277–4283
Sato C, Manaka S, Nakane D, Nishiyama H, Suga M, Nishizaka T, Miyata M, Maruyama Y (2012) Rapid imaging of mycoplasma in solution using atmospheric scanning electron microscopy (ASEM). Biochem Biophys Res Commun 417:1213–1218
Schmidl SR, Otto A, Lluch-Senar M, Pinol J, Busse J, Becher D, Stülke J (2011) A trigger enzyme in Mycoplasma pneumoniae: impact of the glycerophosphodiesterase GlpQ on virulence and gene expression. PLoS Pathog 7:e1002263
Schmidt JA, Browning GF, Markham PF (2007) Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae mhp379 is a Ca2+-dependent, sugar-nonspecific exonuclease exposed on the cell surface. J Bacteriol 189:3414–3424
Schwartz SB, Thurman KA, Mitchell SL, Wolff BJ, Winchell JM (2009) Genotyping of Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates using real-time PCR and high-resolution melt analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect 15:756–762
Seleem MN, Boyle SM, Sriranganathan N (2008) Brucella: a pathogen without classic virulence genes. Vet Microbiol 129:1–14
Seto S, Kenri T, Tomiyama T, Miyata M (2005a) Involvement of P1 adhesin in gliding motility of Mycoplasma pneumoniae as revealed by the inhibitory effects of antibody under optimized gliding conditions. J Bacteriol 187:1875–1877
Seto S, Uenoyama A, Miyata M (2005b) Identification of a 521-kilodalton protein (Gli521) involved in force generation or force transmission for Mycoplasma mobile gliding. J Bacteriol 187:3502–3510
Seto S, Miyata M (2003) Attachment organelle formation represented by localization of cytadherence proteins and formation of the electron-dense core in wild-type and mutant strains of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Bacteriol 185:1082–1091
Seybert A, Herrmann R, Frangakis AS (2006) Structural analysis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae by cryo-electron tomography. J Struct Biol 156:342–354
Seymour LM, Jenkins C, Deutscher AT, Raymond BB, Padula MP, Tacchi JL, Bogema DR et al (2012) Mhp182 (P102) binds fibronectin and contributes to the recruitment of plasmin(ogen) to the Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae cell surface. Cell Microbiol 14:81–94
Shaw BM, Simmons WL, Dybvig K (2012) The Vsa shield of Mycoplasma pulmonis is antiphagocytic. Infect Immun 80:704–709
Shepard MC, Lunceford CD (1976) Differential agar medium (A7) for identification of Ureaplasma urealyticum (human T mycoplasmas) in primary cultures of clinical material. J Clin Microbiol 3:613–625
Shimada Y, Deguchi T, Nakane K, Masue T, Yasuda M, Yokoi S, Ito S, Nakano M, Ishiko H (2010a) Emergence of clinical strains of Mycoplasma genitalium harbouring alterations in ParC associated with fluoroquinolone resistance. Int J Antimicrob Agents 36:255–258
Shimada Y, Deguchi T, Yamaguchi Y, Yasuda M, Nakane K, Yokoi S, Ito S, Nakano M, Ishiko H (2010b) gyrB and parE mutations in urinary Mycoplasma genitalium DNA from men with non-gonococcal urethritis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 36:477–478
Simecka JW, Davis JK, Cassell GH (1987) Specific vs. nonspecific immune responses in murine respiratory mycoplasmosis. Isr J Med Sci 23:485–489
Simmons WL, Dybvig K (2007) Biofilms protect Mycoplasma pulmonis cells from lytic effects of complement and gramicidin. Infect Immun 75:3696–3699
Simmons WL, Dybvig K (2009) Mycoplasma biofilms ex vivo and in vivo. FEMS Microbiol Lett 295:77–81
Sirand-Pugnet P, Citti C, Barre A, Blanchard A (2007a) Evolution of mollicutes: down a bumpy road with twists and turns. Res Microbiol 158:754–766
Sirand-Pugnet P, Lartigue C, Marenda M, Jacob D, Barre A, Barbe V, Schenowitz C et al (2007b) Being pathogenic, plastic, and sexual while living with a nearly minimal bacterial genome. PLoS Genet 3:e75
Sitaraman R, Denison AM, Dybvig K (2002) A unique, bifunctional site-specific DNA recombinase from Mycoplasma pulmonis. Mol Microbiol 46:1033–1040
Smith DG, Russell WC, Ingledew WJ, Thirkell D (1993) Hydrolysis of urea by Ureaplasma urealyticum generates a transmembrane potential with resultant ATP synthesis. J Bacteriol 175:3253–3258
Spooner RK, Russell WC, Thirkell DCP (1992) Characterization of the immunoglobulin A protease of Ureaplasma urealyticum. Infect Immun 60:2544–2546
Spratt BG, Hanage WP, Li B, Aanensen DM, Feil EJ (2004) Displaying the relatedness among isolates of bacterial species – the eBURST approach. FEMS Microbiol Lett 241:129–134
Spuesens EB, Oduber M, Hoogenboezem T, Sluijter M, Hartwig NG, van Rossum AM, Vink C (2009) Sequence variations in RepMP2/3 and RepMP4 elements reveal intragenomic homologous DNA recombination events in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Microbiology 155:2182–2196
Stamatakis A (2006) RAxML-VI-HPC: maximum likelihood-based phylogenetic analyses with thousands of taxa and mixed models. Bioinformatics 22:2688–2690
Stipkovits L, Kempf I (1996) Mycoplasmoses in poultry. Rev Sci Tech 15:1495–1525
Stipkovits L, Szathmary S (2012) Mycoplasma infection of ducks and geese. Poult Sci 91:2812–2819
Stoffregen WC, Alt DP, Palmer MV, Olsen SC, Waters WR, Stasko JA (2006) Identification of a haemomycoplasma species in anemic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). J Wildl Dis 42:249–258
Susuki K, Odaka M, Mori M, Hirata K, Yuki N (2004) Acute motor axonal neuropathy after Mycoplasma infection: evidence of molecular mimicry. Neurology 62:949–956
Svanevik CS, Lunestad BT (2011) Characterisation of the microbiota of Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus). Int J Food Microbiol 151:164–170
Szczepanek SM, Frasca S, Schumacher VL, Liao X, Padula M, Djordjevic SP, Geary SJ (2010) Identification of lipoprotein MslA as a neoteric virulence factor of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Infect Immun 78:3475–3483
Tajima M, Yagihashi T, Miki Y (1982) Capsular material of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and its possible relevance to the pathogenic process. Infect Immun 36:830–833
Tambi NE, Maina WO, Ndi C (2006) An estimation of the economic impact of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in Africa. Rev Sci Tech 25:999–1011
Tanskanen R (1987) Transmission of Mycoplasma dispar among a succession of newborn calves on a dairy farm. Acta Vet Scand 28:349–360
Tardy F, Baranowski E, Nouvel LX, Mick V, Manso-Silvan L, Thiaucourt F, Thebault P et al (2012) Emergence of atypical Mycoplasma agalactiae strains harboring a new prophage and associated with an alpine wild ungulate mortality episode. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:4659–4668
Tarshis M, Katzenel A, Rottem S (1994) Use of Merocyanine 540 and Hoechst 33258 for the selective killing of contaminating mycoplasmas in cell cultures. J Immunol Methods 168:245–252
Taylor-Robinson D, Davies HA, Sarathchandra P, Furr PM (1991) Intracellular location of mycoplasmas in cultured cells demonstrated by immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy. Int J Exp Pathol 72:705–714
Taylor-Robinson D, Furr PM (1997) Genital mycoplasma infections. Wien Klin Wochenschr 109:578–583
Taylor-Robinson D, Furr PM, Tully JG (1983) Serological cross-reactions between Mycoplasma genitalium and M. pneumoniae. Lancet 1:527
Theiss P, Wise KS (1997) Localized frameshift mutation generates selective, high-frequency phase variation of a surface lipoprotein encoded by a mycoplasma ABC transporter operon. J Bacteriol 179:4013–4022
Thiaucourt F (2008) Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. In: World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (ed) Terrestrial manual. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), pp 13–724 (Chap 2.4.9) http://www.oie.int/en/international-standard-setting/terrestrial-code/access-online/
Thomas C, Jacobs E, Dumke R (2013) Characterization of pyruvate dehydrogenase subunit B and enolase as plasminogen binding proteins in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Microbiology 159:352–365
Touati A, Benard A, Hassen AB, Bébéar CM, Pereyre S (2009) Evaluation of five commercial real-time PCR assays for detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory tract specimens. J Clin Microbiol 47:2269–2271
Tully JG (1995) Culture medium formulation for primary isolation and maintenance of mollicutes. In: Razin S, Tully TG (eds) Molecular and diagnostic procedures in mycoplasmology, vol I. Academic, San Diego, pp 33–39
Tully JG, Whitcomb RF, Clark HF, Williamson DL (1977) Pathogenic mycoplasmas: cultivation and vertebrate pathogenicity of a new spiroplasma. Science 195:892–894
Tulman ER, Liao X, Szczepanek SM, Ley DH, Kutish GF, Geary SJ (2012) Extensive variation in surface lipoprotein gene content and genomic changes associated with virulence during evolution of a novel North American house finch epizootic strain of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Microbiology 158:2073–2088
Typas A, Banzhaf M, Gross CA, Vollmer W (2011) From the regulation of peptidoglycan synthesis to bacterial growth and morphology. Nat Rev Microbiol 10:123–136
Uemura R, Sueyoshi M, Nagatomo H (2010) Antimicrobial susceptibilities of four species of Mycoplasma isolated in 2008 and 2009 from cattle in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 72:1661–1663
Ueno PM, Timenetsky J, Centonze VE, Wewer JJ, Cagle M, Stein MA, Krishnan M, Baseman JB (2008) Interaction of Mycoplasma genitalium with host cells: evidence for nuclear localization. Microbiology 154:3033–3041
Uenoyama A, Kusumoto A, Miyata M (2004) Identification of a 349-kilodalton protein (Gli349) responsible for cytadherence and glass binding during gliding of Mycoplasma mobile. J Bacteriol 186:1537–1545
Uphoff CC, Drexler HG (2002) Comparative antibiotic eradication of mycoplasma infections from continuous cell lines. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 38:86–89
van Ham RC, Kamerbeek J, Palacios C, Rausell C, Abascal F, Bastolla U, Fernandez JM et al (2003) Reductive genome evolution in Buchnera aphidicola. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:581–586
van Kuppeveld FJ, van der Logt JT, Angulo AF, van Zoest MJ, Quint WG, Niesters HG, Galama JM, Melchers WJ (1992) Genus- and species-specific identification of mycoplasmas by 16S rRNA amplification. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:2606–2615
Vancini RG, Pereira-Neves A, Borojevic R, Benchimol M (2008) Trichomonas vaginalis harboring Mycoplasma hominis increases cytopathogenicity in vitro. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 27:259–267
Vancutsem E, Soetens O, Breugelmans M, Foulon W, Naessens A (2011) Modified real-time PCR for detecting, differentiating, and quantifying Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum. J Mol Diagn 13:206–212
Vicca J, Maes D, Stakenborg T, Butaye P, Minion F, Peeters J, de Kruif A, Decostere A, Haesebrouck F (2007) Resistance mechanism against fluoroquinolones in Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae field isolates. Microb Drug Resist 13:166–170
Vilei EM, Correia I, Ferronha MH, Bischof DF, Frey J (2007) Beta-d-glucoside utilization by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC: possible involvement in the control of cytotoxicity towards bovine lung cells. BMC Microbiol 7:31
Viscardi RM, Manimtim WM, Sun CC, Duffy L, Cassell GH (2002) Lung pathology in premature infants with Ureaplasma urealyticum infection. Pediatr Dev Pathol 5:141–150
Vogl G, Plaickner A, Szathmary S, Stipkovits L, Rosengarten R, Szostak MP (2008) Mycoplasma gallisepticum invades chicken erythrocytes during infection. Infect Immun 76:71–77
Waite ER, March JB (2001) Effect of HEPES buffer systems upon the pH, growth and survival of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony (MmmSC) vaccine cultures. FEMS Microbiol Lett 201:291–294
Waite ER, March JB (2002) Capsular polysaccharide conjugate vaccines against contagious bovine pleuropneumonia: immune responses and protection in mice. J Comp Pathol 126:171–182
Waites KB, Katz B, Schelonka RL (2005) Mycoplasmas and ureaplasmas as neonatal pathogens. Clin Microbiol Rev 18:757–789
Waites KB, Xiao L, Paralanov V, Viscardi RM, Glass JI (2012) Molecular methods for the detection of mycoplasma and ureaplasma infections in humans: a paper from the 2011 William Beaumont Hospital Symposium on molecular pathology. J Mol Diagn 14:437–450
Walter ND, Grant GB, Bandy U, Alexander NE, Winchell JM, Jordan HT, Sejvar JJ et al (2008) Community outbreak of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection: school-based cluster of neurologic disease associated with household transmission of respiratory illness. J Infect Dis 198:1365–1374
Wang HH (2010) Synthetic genomes for synthetic biology. J Mol Cell Biol 2:178–179
Wang PJ, Xie CB (2012) Mycoplasma hominis symbiosis and Trichomonas vaginalis metronidazole resistance. Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi 30:210–213
Wang RY, Shih JW, Grandinetti T, Pierce PF, Hayes MM, Wear DJ, Alter HJ, Lo SC (1992) High frequency of antibodies to Mycoplasma penetrans in HIV-infected patients. Lancet 340:1312–1316
Weisburg WG, Tully JG, Rose DL, Petzel JP, Oyaizu H, Yang D, Mandelco L et al (1989) A phylogenetic analysis of the mycoplasmas: basis for their classification. J Bacteriol 171:6455–6467
Westberg J, Persson A, Holmberg A, Goesmann A, Lundeberg J, Johansson KE, Pettersson B, Uhlen M (2004) The genome sequence of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC type strain PG1T, the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP). Genome Res 14:221–227
Willby MJ, Balish MF, Ross SM, Lee KK, Jordan JL, Krause DC (2004) HMW1 is required for stability and localization of HMW2 to the attachment organelle of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Bacteriol 186:8221–8228
Willby MJ, Krause DC (2002) Characterization of a Mycoplasma pneumoniae hmw3 mutant: implications for attachment organelle assembly. J Bacteriol 184:3061–3068
Willi B, Museux K, Novacco M, Schraner EM, Wild P, Groebel K, Ziegler U et al (2011) First morphological characterization of ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ using electron microscopy. Vet Microbiol 149:367–373
Wilson DJ, Justice-Allen A, Goodell G, Baldwin TJ, Skirpstunas RT, Cavender KB (2011) Risk of Mycoplasma bovis transmission from contaminated sand bedding to naive dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 94:1318–1324
Winner F, Rosengarten R, Citti C (2000) In vitro cell invasion of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Infect Immun 68:4238–4244
Wise KS, Watson RK (1985) Antigenic mimicry of mammalian intermediate filaments by mycoplasmas. Infect Immun 48:587–591
Woese CR, Maniloff J, Zablen LB (1980) Phylogenetic analysis of the mycoplasmas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77:494–498
Woese CR, Stackebrandt E, Ludwig W (1984) What are mycoplasmas: the relationship of tempo and mode in bacterial evolution. J Mol Evol 21:305–316
Woeste K, Grosse Beilage E (2007) Transmission of agents of the porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) between swine herds: a review. Part 1: diagnosis, transmission by animal contact. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr 114:324–326, 328–337
Woods JE, Brewer MM, Hawley JR, Wisnewski N, Lappin MR (2005) Evaluation of experimental transmission of Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and Mycoplasma haemofelis by Ctenocephalides felis to cats. Am J Vet Res 66:1008–1012
Wozniak RA, Waldor MK (2010) Integrative and conjugative elements: mosaic mobile genetic elements enabling dynamic lateral gene flow. Nat Rev Microbiol 8:552–563
Xiao JC, Xie LF, Fang SL, Gao MY, Zhu Y, Song LY, Zhong HM, Lun ZR (2006) Symbiosis of Mycoplasma hominis in Trichomonas vaginalis may link metronidazole resistance in vitro. Parasitol Res 100:123–130
Yarza P, Richter M, Peplies J, Euzeby J, Amann R, Schleifer KH, Ludwig W, Glockner FO, Rossello-Mora R (2008) The All-Species Living Tree project: a 16S rRNA-based phylogenetic tree of all sequenced type strains. Syst Appl Microbiol 31:241–250
Yavlovich A, Higazi AA, Rottem S (2001) Plasminogen binding and activation by Mycoplasma fermentans. Infect Immun 69:1977–1982
Yavlovich A, Tarshis M, Rottem S (2004) Internalization and intracellular survival of Mycoplasma pneumoniae by non-phagocytic cells. FEMS Microbiol Lett 233:241–246
Yus E, Maier T, Michalodimitrakis K, van Noort V, Yamada T, Chen WH, Wodke JA et al (2009) Impact of genome reduction on bacterial metabolism and its regulation. Science 326:1263–1268
Zhang Q, Wise KS (1996) Molecular basis of size and antigenic variation of a Mycoplasma hominis adhesin encoded by divergent vaa genes. Infect Immun 64:2737–2744
Zimmerman CU, Rosengarten R, Spergser J (2013) Interaction of the putative tyrosine recombinases RipX (UU145), XerC (UU222) and CodV (UU529) of Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3 with specific DNA. FEMS Microbiol Lett 340:55–64
Zimmerman CU, Stiedl T, Rosengarten R, Spergser J (2009) Alternate phase variation in expression of two major surface membrane proteins (MBA and UU376) of Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3. FEMS Microbiol Lett 292:187–193
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our colleagues from our current and past laboratories for sharing ideas and information. Figure 39.3 was contributed by the M.M. laboratory.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this entry
Cite this entry
May, M., Balish, M.F., Blanchard, A. (2014). The Order Mycoplasmatales . In: Rosenberg, E., DeLong, E.F., Lory, S., Stackebrandt, E., Thompson, F. (eds) The Prokaryotes. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-30120-9_289
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-30120-9_289
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-30119-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-30120-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesReference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences