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Induced Impacts of Climate Change on Livelihood and Migration in Upper Himalayas: A Case of Mustang, Nepal

Handbook of Climate Change Management

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Abstract

Mountain environments, mountain hydrology, and mountain inhabitant’s livelihood has been affected by climate change in direct and indirect manner, thus by bringing alternation in migration patterns. This research scrutinizes climate change–induced impacts on livelihood and migration in Trans-Himalayan Mustang district of Nepal. Mann-Kendall’s trend test has been used for analysis of rainfall patterns and temperature of 30 years. The impacts of climate change on different aspects of livelihood are studied adopting the DFID framework and the foresight framework is used for understanding drivers of migration. Data from household questionnaire surveys and focused group discussion in remote villages of Chussang and Lomanthang (Upper-Mustang) is used to validate the results of trend analysis and as input data for both frameworks.

Results have indicated winters are warming and precipitation amounts have increased in the months of June and July. Warm winters and less snowfall are leading successively to drying of springs. The annual average minimum and maximum temperature of February showed an increasing trend with a computed p-value of 0.010 and 0.020, respectively. The analysis of annual rainfall showed an increasing trend with the computed p-value of 0.022. The trend analysis of average annual rainfall indicated an increase of (β) 4.075 mm/year rainfall. The rainfall in July showed the increasing trend with p-value of 0.007. Results have shown that the effect in natural capital and the impacts on the livelihood aspects due to climate extremes will ultimately impacts human mobility. Natural capital was found mostly affected by the climatic variability which includes water shortage, the decline in agriculture production, and insect infestation. The impacts were extended to low family income, low quality of education, shortage of food, etc. Climatic variability has been affecting the livelihood of people now and will do so in the future. This study recommends for adopting appropriate management of the water resources, organic pest management at the local level, water- and nutrient-efficient modern technologies in farming, and appropriate structure for education, transport, and health for increasing the adaptive capacity of the mountainous populations of the area.

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Acknowledgment

The authors would like to express gratitude to World Wildlife Fund-Nepal (WWF-Nepal) for funding the research with Harka Gurung Fellowship Program and Central Department of Environmental Sciences, Tribhuvan University (TU-CDES), Kathmandu, Nepal for fund and facilitation to conduct research. We would like to thank Aso. Prof. Udhav Raj Khadka for valuable academic insights during supervision of research work; Prof. Dr. Dinesh R. Bhuju for valuable inputs; Ass. Prof. Man Kumar Dhamala for valuable insights; Prkash Chandra Aryal, faculty, for support to use statistical tools; representatives; government officers; and the awesome general public of the study area for their warm facilitation and responses.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

    Romi Bhadra & Bashudev Neupane

  2. Eco Concern Pvt. Ltd., Lalitpur, Nepal

    Romi Bhadra

  3. Chitro Nepal Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu, Nepal

    Bashudev Neupane

Authors
  1. Romi Bhadra
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  2. Bashudev Neupane
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Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. FTZ-ALS, HAW Hamburg, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Walter Leal Filho

  2. School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Carindale, Australia

    Johannes Luetz

  3. Center for Food Security Studies, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

    Desalegn Ayal

Appendices

Appendix I: Checklist for Data Collection

Household Survey: Questionnaire/Checklist

  1. A.

    Household information:

    S. N.

    Questionnaire no.

    		 

    1

    Date:

    		 

    2

    Name of respondent:

    		 

    3

    Age

    		 

    4

    Gender

    		 

    5

    Education

    		 

    6

    Religion

    		 
  2. B.

    Livelihood

    1. 1.

      Have you moved to the village from elsewhere? If yes, Number of years stayed in a community?

    2. 2.

      What is your Occupation?

      • i. Farming  ii. Business  iii. Livestock  iv. Tourism  v. others

    3. 3.

      What kind of crops do you plant?

    4. 4.

      What kinds of animals do you rare?

    5. 5.

      Is it enough for the day-to-day expense from your earnings?

      • i. yes   ii. No

    6. 6.

      If not, what are the other sources of your income? (Tick the factor)

      Source

      (√)

      Remittances

      		 

      Pensions

      		 

      Savings

      		 

      Other

      		 
    7. 7.

      Is your transportation facility affordable for you?

      • i. Yes   ii. No

    8. 8.

      Are you satisfied with the health services?

      • i. Yes   ii. No

    9. 9.

      Are you satisfied with your shelter? Why?

      • i. Yes   ii. No

    10. 10.

      What are the sources of drinking water?

      • i. River   ii. Well   iii. Streams   iv. Other

    11. 11.

      Do you lend or borrow things with your neighbors?

      • i. Yes   ii. No

  3. C.

    Climate Change

    1. 12.

      Have you observed changes in the rainfall and temperature and snowfall over the last 30 years?

      • i. Yes   ii. No

    2. 13.

      What are the consequences of these changes? (Tick answer).

      Drought

      		 

      Occurrence of new plant species

      		 

      Water scarcity

      		 

      Erratic rainfall

      		 

      Temperature increase

      		 

      Flood

      		 

      Earthquake

      		 

      Rainfall increase

      		 

      Landslides

      		 

      Strong wind

      		 

      Hail strom

      		 

      Temperature decrease

      		 

      Rainfall decrease

      		 

      Untimely rainfall

      		 

      Decrease in snowfall

      		 

      Landslide/erosion

      		 

      Drying of springs

      		 

      Decrease in soil quality

      		 
    3. 14.

      How are the impacts on the following due to these climatic changes?

      (Select the factors and rank in order of severity. 1. Very high  2. High  3. Low  4. Very low  5. Indifference)

      S. N

      Impacts in indicators

      VH

      H

      L

      VL

      I

      1

      Reduction in crop production

      		     

      2

      Insect infestation and crop disease

      		     

      3

      Reduction in water availability

      		     

      4

      Effects on livestock

      		     

      5

      Lending and borrowing things

      		     

      6

      Help received

      		     

      7

      Trainings provided by organization

      		     

      8

      Migration of working age group

      		     

      9

      Lack of nutrition

      		     

      10

      Impact on medical facility

      		     

      11

      Impact on education services

      		     

      12

      Impact on access on road

      		     

      13

      Impact on shelter and building

      		     

      14

      Impact on water supply

      		     

      15

      Impact on agriculture production

      		     

      16

      Impact on tourism market

      		     

      17

      Impact on livestock rearing

      		     
  4. D.

    Migration

    1. 15.

      Have any members of your household living out of home (migrated)?

      • i. Yes   ii. No

    2. 16.

      What kind of migration?

      • i. Seasonal   ii. International   iii. National

    3. 17.

      What is the reason behind migration? (Tick the appropriate)

S.N

Reason

Seasonal migration

National migration

International migration

1

Employment opportunity

   

2

For better education

   

3

Conflict/Public relationship

   

4

Decrease in land productivity

   

5

Water shortage/scarcity of drinking water

   

6

Food shortage

   

7

Low agricultural production due to environmental stressors

   

8

Climatic condition

   

9

Disease prevalence

   

10

Population size

   

Appendices II: Photographs

Photograph 1
figure 19

Household Questionnaire

Full size image
Photograph 2
figure 20

Jhyopa drinking canal water after snowfall

Full size image
Photograph 3
figure 21

Interview with mukhiya of Lo Manthang

Full size image
Photograph 4
figure 22

After KII with ACAP officials

Full size image
Photograph 5
figure 23

Abandoned house

Full size image
Photograph 6
figure 24

Traditional kitchen

Full size image

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Bhadra, R., Neupane, B. (2021). Induced Impacts of Climate Change on Livelihood and Migration in Upper Himalayas: A Case of Mustang, Nepal. In: Leal Filho, W., Luetz, J., Ayal, D. (eds) Handbook of Climate Change Management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22759-3_303-1

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22759-3_303-1

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  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-22759-3

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  1. Latest

    Induced Impacts of Climate Change on Livelihood and Migration in Upper Himalayas: A Case of Mustang, Nepal
    Published:
    05 August 2021

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22759-3_303-2

  2. Original

    Induced Impacts of Climate Change on Livelihood and Migration in Upper Himalayas: A Case of Mustang, Nepal
    Published:
    16 July 2021

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22759-3_303-1

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