Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Tick Paralysis of Animals in Australia

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas

Part of the book series: Toxinology ((TOXI))

Abstract

This review encompasses all aspects of tick paralysis relevant to animals in Australia. Tick paralysis is a major animal health problem along the east coast of Australia. Each year an estimated 10,000 dogs and cats are presented to veterinarians for treatment. Many other animal species have been documented to be affected with tick paralysis including horses, cattle, sheep, bats, and other native animals. Ixodes holocyclus and, to a lesser extent in southern Australia, Ixodes cornuatus are the causative tick species. Tick attachment to the host is usually followed by a latent period of 3–6 days during which time the tick engorges and salivary glands enlarge producing a neurotoxin. Paralysis signs are generally caused by the engorgement of one tick but less commonly multiple ticks can be found and occasionally no tick is found. Typical early clinical signs include hind limb ataxia which generally progresses to quadriplegia and death from respiratory failure. Atypical cases may present without generalized paralysis but with only facial paralysis, anisocoria, or gastrointestinal signs such as vomiting and regurgitation may occur making diagnosis difficult. Unexplained actions of the tick toxin include cardiac effects which may contribute to pulmonary edema and ultimately respiratory compromise. The historically elusive molecular nature of the salivary gland secreted 5 kD protein neurotoxin has recently been described and the gene sequence determined. The principle therapeutic agent used in the treatment of affected animals is hyperimmune canine serum. Supportive care of severely affected animals appears important to improve survival outcomes. Response to treatment of early mildly paralyzed animals is good with over 90% of treated reported animals surviving. Animals presenting with severe respiratory compromise and quadriplegia have a poor survival prognosis despite intensive treatment. A range of preventative acaricides are currently available including new generation long-acting oral medications, topical liquids, and washes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

CSIRO:

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

g:

Gram

HT-1:

Holocyclotoxin 1

IgG:

Immunoglobulin G

IgM:

Immunoglobulin M

im:

Intramuscular

ip:

Intraperitoneal

iv:

Intravenous

kD:

Kilodalton

kg:

Kilogram

LD50:

Lethal dose 50%

mg:

Milligram

mL:

Milliliter

NSW:

New South Wales

Qld:

Queensland

References

  • Anastopoulos P, Thurn MJ, Broady KW. Anticoagulant in the tick Ixodes holocyclus. Aust Vet J. 1991;68:366–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Askenase PW, Bagnall BG, Worms MJ. Cutaneous basophil-associated resistance to ectoparasites (ticks). I. Transfer with immune serum or immune cells. Immunology. 1982;45:501–11.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Atwell RB, Campbell FE. Reactions to tick antitoxin serum and the role of atropine in treatment of dogs and cats with tick paralysis caused by Ixodes holocyclus: a pilot survey. Aust Vet J. 2001;79:394–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atwell R, Campbell F, Court E. The attachment sites of the paralysis tick (Ixodes holocyclus) on dogs. Aust Vet Pract. 2000;30:68–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atwell RB, Campbell FE, Evans EA. Prospective survey of tick paralysis in dogs. Aust Vet J. 2001;79:412–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barker SC, Walker AR. Ticks of Australia. The species that infest domestic animals and humans. Zootaxa. 2014;3816:1–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barker SC, Walker AR, Campelo D. A list of the 70 species of Australian ticks; diagnostic guides to and species accounts of Ixodes holocyclus (paralysis tick), Ixodes cornuatus (southern paralysis tick) and Rhipicephalus australis (Australian cattle tick); and consideration of the place of Australia in the evolution of ticks with comments on four controversial ideas. Int J Parasitol. 2014;44:941–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beveridge I. Ixodes holocyclus in the Melbourne metropolitan area. Aust Vet J. 1991;68:214.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beveridge I, Coleman G. Tick paralysis of dogs in Victoria due to Ixodes cornuatus. Aust Vet J. 2004;82:642–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bootes B. A fatal paralysis in foals from Ixodes holocyclus Neumann infestation. Aust Vet J. 1962;38:68–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell F, Atwell R. Megaoesophagus in dogs with tick paralysis (Ixodes holocyclus). Aust Vet Pract. 2001;31:75–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell FE, Atwell RB. Long QT syndrome in dogs with tick toxicity (Ixodes holocyclus). Aust Vet J. 2002;80:611–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell F, Atwell R. Heart failure in dogs with tick paralysis caused by the Australian paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus. Int J Appl Res Vet Med. 2003;1:148–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell FE, Atwell RB, Smart L. Effects of the paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus, on the electrocardiogram of the spectacled flying fox, Pteropus conspicillatus. Aust Vet J. 2003;81:328–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell F, Atwell R, Fenning A, Hoey A, Brown L. Cardiovascular effects of the toxin(s) of the Australian paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus, in the rat. Toxicon. 2004;43:743–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper B, Spence I. Temperature-dependent inhibition of evoked acetycholine release in tick paralysis. Nature. 1976;263:693–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper B, Cooper H, Ilkiw J, Kelly J. Tick paralysis. Proceedings No. 30 – Neurology. Sydney Postgraduate Foundation; 1976. p. 57–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey M, Ratcliffe R, Titchen D. Aspects of the symptomatology and intoxication produced by Ixodes holocyclus. In: Proceedings of the Sydney Allergen Group. vol. 6. 1988; p. 49. 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd S. Tick paralysis. J Comp Pathol Ther. 1921;34:309–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doube B. Cattle and the paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus. Aust Vet J. 1975;51:511–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doube BM, Kemp DH. Paralysis of cattle by ixodes holocyclus Neumann. Aust J Agric Res. 1975;26:635.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doube B, Kemp DH, Bird P. Paralysis of calves by the tick, Ixodes holocyclus. Aust Vet J. 1977;53:39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doube BM, Goodger BV, Stone BF, Nolan J. Toxic secretions in cuticular washings from the Australian paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus. Toxicon. 1995;33:304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fearnley A. The importance of body temperature in the treatment of tick paralysis. Aust Vet Pract. 2002;32:137–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisara P, Webster M. A randomized controlled trial of the efficacy of orally administered fluralaner (Bravecto) against induced Ixodes holocyclus (Australian paralysis tick) infestations on dogs. Parasit Vectors. 2015;8:257.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald M. Ixodes holocyclus poisoning. Clinical Toxicology, Sydney Postgraduate Foundation; 1998. p. 203–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald M. Tick toxicity in a cat caused by the larval stage of Ixodes holocyclus. Aust Vet Pract. 2007;37:32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodrich BS, Murray MD. Factors influencing the toxicity of salivary gland extracts of Ixodes holocyclus Neumann. Int J Parasitol. 1978;8:313–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall-Mendelin S, Craig SB, Hall RA, O’Donoghue P, Atwell RB, Tulsiani SM, Graham GC. Tick paralysis in Australia caused by Ixodes holocyclus Neumann. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2011a;105:95–106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hall-Mendelin S, O’Donoghue P, Atwell RB, Lee R, Hall RA. An ELISA to detect serum antibodies to the salivary gland toxin of Ixodes holocyclus Neumann in dogs and rodents. J Parasitol Res. 2011b;2011:283416.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hindmarsh W, Pursell R. Tick paralysis of dogs. Mortality after serum treatment. Aust Vet J. 1935;11:229–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland CT. Asymmetrical focal neurological deficits in dogs and cats with naturally occurring tick paralysis (Ixodes holocyclus): 27 cases (1999–2006). Aust Vet J. 2008;86:377–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutton JB. Tick (Ixodes holocyclus) paralysis in an imported dog. N Z Vet J. 1974;22:173.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ilkiw JE. Tick paralysis in Australia. In: Kirk RW, editor. Current veterinary therapy IX. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger; 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilkiw JE, Turner DM. Infestation in the dog by the paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus. 5. Treatment. Aust Vet J. 1988;65:236–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ilkiw JE, Turner DM, Howlett CR. Infestation in the dog by the paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus. 1. Clinical and histological findings. Aust Vet J. 1987;64:137–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson J, Beveridge I, Chilton NB, Andrews RH. Distributions of the paralysis ticks Ixodes cornuatus and Ixodes holocyclus in south-eastern Australia. Aust Vet J. 2007;85:420–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones D. Tick paralysis. Proceedings No. 149 – Emergency Medicine and Critical Care; Sydney Postgraduate Foundation; 1991. p. 153–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonsson NN, Rozmanec M. Tick paralysis and hepatic lipidosis in a llama. Aust Vet J. 1997;75:250–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaire G. A method for assay of canine tick anti-serum. Aust Vet J. 1965;41:239–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaire GH. Isolation of tick paralysis toxin from Ixodes holocyclus. Toxicon. 1966;4:91–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelers K, Barker S, Song S. Identification of Ixodes holocyclus by DNA sequencing: application for suspected tick envenomation in a dog living outside an enzootic area. Aust Vet Pract. 2012;42:240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malik R, Farrow BR. Tick paralysis in North America and Australia. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Anim Pract. 1991;21:157–71.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malik R, King J, Allan G. Megaoesophagus associated with tick paralysis in three dogs. Aust Vet Pract. 1988;18:156–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masina S, Broady KW. Tick paralysis: development of a vaccine. Int J Parasitol. 1999;29:535–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray M, Koch J. The engorgement of Ixodes holocyclus Neuman (Acarina: Ixodoidea) on mice. J Aust Entomol Soc. 1969;8:187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson GM, Graudins A, Wilson HI, Little M, Broady KW. Arachnid toxinology in Australia: from clinical toxicology to potential applications. Toxicon. 2006;48:872–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oxer D. The preparation of canine anti-tick serum. Aust Vet J. 1948;24:95–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oxer D, Ricardo C. Notes on the biology, toxicity and breeding of Ixodes holocyclus (Neuman). Aust Vet J. 1942;18:194–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearn J. Neuromuscular paralysis caused by tick envenomation. J Neurol Sci. 1977;34:37–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riek R. Studies on the reactions of animals to infestation with ticks II. Tick Toxins. Aust J Agric Res. 1957;8:215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross I. The bionomics of Ixodes holocyclus Neumann, with a redescription of the adult and nymphal stages and a description of the larvae. Parasitology. 1924;16:365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross I. An experimental study of tick paralysis in Australia. Parasitology. 1926;18:410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross I. An experimental study of tick paralysis in Australia. Aust Vet J. 1927a;3:71–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross I. The treatment of tick paralysis. Aust Vet J. 1927b;3:72–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross I. Tick paralysis in the dog caused by nymphs of Ixodes holocyclus. Aust Vet J. 1932;8:102–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross I. Tick paralysis in the dog. Period elapsing between attachment of tick and the onset of symptoms. Aust Vet J. 1934;10:182–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross I. Tick paralysis: a fatal disease of dogs and other animals in Eastern Australia. J Counc Sci Ind Res. 1935;8:8–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruppin M, Sullivan S, Condon F, Perkins N, Lee L, Jeffcott LB, Dart AJ. Retrospective study of 103 presumed cases of tick (Ixodes holocyclus) envenomation in the horse. Aust Vet J. 2012;90:175–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schull D. Acute side effects attributed to the use of tick antitoxin serum: a review of available descriptions. Aust Vet Pract. 2007;37:98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schull DN, Litster AL, Atwell RB. Tick toxicity in cats caused by Ixodes species in Australia: a review of published literature. J Feline Med Surg. 2007;9:487–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scott A. Dr Bernard Stone AM, DSc. Aust Soc Parasitol Newsl. 2005;16:4–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sloan C. Mortality in sheep due to Ixodes species. Aust Vet J. 1968;44:527.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone B. Vaccination of rabbits against the toxin of the Australian paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus. Toxicon. 1983;21:421–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone B. No.3: Tick paralysis: antitoxin and vaccine perspectives, Mailing No. 153, Perspective No. 3, p. 9–12, Apr 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone B, Aylward JH. Tick toxicoses and the causal toxins: tick paralysis. In: Gopalakrishnakone P, Tan C, editors. Progress in venom and toxin research. Singapore: Postgraduate Foundation Veterinary Scice; 1987. p. 594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone BF, Neish AL. Tick-paralysis toxoid: an effective immunizing agent against the toxin of Ixodes holocyclus. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci. 1984;62(Pt 2):189–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone B, Wright IG. Ticks and tick borne diseases. Proceedings of a Symposium held at the 56th Annual Conference of the Australian Veterinary Association, Townsville, Published by the Australian Veterinary Association 1980; p. 75–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone B, Wright I. Tick toxins and protective immunity. In: Whitehead GB, and Gibson JD, editors. Tick biology and control, South Africa: Grahamstown; 1981. p. 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone B, Doube B, Binnington K. Toxins of the Australian paralysis tick Ixodes holcyclus. Recent Adv Acarol. 1979;1:347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone BF, Cowie MR, Kerr JD, Binnington KC. Improved toxin/antitoxin assays for studies on the Australian paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci. 1982;60:309–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone B, Wright I, Neish AL. Natural and artificial immunisation of dogs against tick paralysis induced by the Australian paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus. Toxicon. 1983;21:417–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tee SY, Feary DJ. Suspected tick paralysis (Ixodes holocyclus) in a Miniature Horse. Aust Vet J. 2012;90:181–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thurn MJ, Gooley A, Broady K. Identification of the neurotoxin from the Australian paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus. In: Gopalakrishnakone P, Tan C, editors. Recent advances in toxinology research. Singapore; 1992. p. 243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trigg N, Leister E, Whitney J, McAlees T. Outcomes of mechanical ventilation in 302 dogs and cats in Australia (2005–2013). Aust Vet Pract. 2014;44:698–703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vink S, Daly NL, Steen N, Craik DJ, Alewood PF. Holocyclotoxin-1, a cystine knot toxin from Ixodes holocyclus. Toxicon. 2014;90:308–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster RA. Tick paralysis 1- pathophysiology, controversies and initial management, continuing veterinary education, Emergency Conference, Proceedings No. 411; 2014a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster, RA. Tick paralysis 2: critical care of patients with tick paralysis, continuing veterinary education. Proceedings No. 411; 2014b. p. 91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster RA, Mackie JT, Haskins SC. Histopathological changes in the lungs from dogs with tick paralysis: 25 cases (2010–2012). Aust Vet J. 2013a;91:306–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster RA, Mills PC, Morton JM. Indications, durations and outcomes of mechanical ventilation in dogs and cats with tick paralysis caused by Ixodes holocyclus: 61 cases (2008–2011). Aust Vet J. 2013b;91:233–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westwood MN, Emery DL, Dhand NK. Clinical presentation and treatment of tick paralysis in dogs and cats in Sydney (2001–2010). Aust Vet J. 2013;91:491–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker I, Cornish K. The Bezold-Jarisch Reflex in the conscious dog. Circ Res. 1981;49:940–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    A. M. Padula

Authors
  1. A. M. Padula
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. M. Padula .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Hawaii Cancer Center, and Department of Pathology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA

    Carl-Wilhelm Vogel

  2. Department of Emergency Medicine New Mexico School of Medicine, New Mexico Poison Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA

    Steven A. Seifert

  3. Laboratory of Immunochemistry, Division of Development and Innovation Butantan Institute, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Denise V. Tambourgi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Padula, A.M. (2018). Tick Paralysis of Animals in Australia. In: Vogel, CW., Seifert, S., Tambourgi, D. (eds) Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas. Toxinology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7438-3_65

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation