Skip to main content

The Enterotoxic Clostridia

  • Reference work entry
The Prokaryotes

Introduction to the Enterotoxic Clostridia

The anaerobic, nutrient-rich conditions of the mammalian gastrointestinal (GI) tract provide a relatively attractive niche for many clostridia. Several of those clostridial species also produce toxins with potent activity on the GI tract, enabling them to cause human and/or veterinary enteric diseases (Table 1).

Table 1. Major clostridial species causing human and/or veterinary enteric disease.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 700.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Literature Cited

  • Adak, G. K., S. M. Long, and S. J. O’Brien. 2002 Trends in indigenous foodborne disease and deaths, England and Wales: 1992 to 2000 Gut 51 832–841

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alfa, M. J., A. Kabani, D. Lyerly, S. Moncrief, L. M. Neville, A. Al-Barrak, G. K. H. Harding, B. Dyck, K. Olekson, and J. M. Embil. 2000 Characterization of a toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive strain of Clostridium difficile responsible for a nosocomial outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea J. Clin. Microbiol. 38 2706–2714

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alonso, R., C. Munoz, T. Pelaez, E. Cercenado, M. Rodriguez-Creixems, and E. Bouza. 1997 Rapid detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile strains by a nested PCR of the toxin B gene Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 3 145–147

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sheikhly, F., and R. B. Truscott. 1977 The interaction of Clostridium perfringens and its toxins in the production of necrotic enteritis of chickens Avian Dis. 21 256–263

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sheikhly, F., and A. Al-Saieg. 1980 Role of coccidian in the occurrence of necrotic enteritis of chickens Avian Dis. 24 333

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous. 1993 British Pharmacopoeia (Veterinary) HMSO London, UK 118

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. B. R. 1972 The attachment of Clostridium welchii (Clostridium perfringens) type C to intestinal villi of pigs J. Pathol. 106 65–72

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ardehali, M., M. Moosawi, and R. Pilehchian. 1994 Isolation of Toxigenic Strains of Clostridium perfringens from the soil of farms in Iran Arch. Inst. RAZI 44 45

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinall, S. T., and D. N. Hutchinson. 1992 New selective medium for isolating Clostridium difficile from faeces J. Clin. Pathol. 45 812–814

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Awad, M. M., A. E. Bryant, D. L. Stevens, and J. I. Rood. 1995 Virulence studies on chromosomal α toxin and β toxin mutants constructed by θ allelic exchange provide genetic evidence for the essential role of α toxin in Clostridium perfringens-mediated gas gangrene Molec. Microbiol. 15 191–202

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baba, S. G., E., A. L. Fuller, J. M. Gilbert, Thayer, and L. R. McDougald. 1992 Effects of Eimeria brunetti infection and dietary zinc on experimental induction of necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens Avian Dis. 36 59–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldassarri, L., G. Donelli, M. Cerquetti, and P. Mastrantonio. 1991 Capsule-like structures in Clostridium difficile strains Microbiologica 14 295–300

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banno, Y., T. Kobayashi, K. Watanable, K. Ueno, and Y. Nozawa. 1981 Two toxins (D-1 and D-2) and Clostridium difficile causing antibiotic associated colitis: purification and some biological characterization Biochem. Int. 2 629–635

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banu, S., K. Ohtani, H. Yaguchi, T. Swe, S. Cole, H. Hayashi, and T. Shimizu. 2000 Identification of novel VirR/VirS-regulated genes in Clostridium perfringens Molec. Microbiol. 35 854–864

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barbut, F., and J. C. Petit. 2001 Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated infections Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 7 405–410

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barbut, F., V. Lalande, B. Burghoffer, H. V. Thien, E. Grimprel, and J. C. Petit. 2002 Prevalence and genetic characterization of toxin A variant strains of Clostridium difficile among adults and children with diarrhea in France J. Clin. Microbiol. 40 2079–2083

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, I. K., A. A. Van Dreumel, and N. Palmer. 1993 The alimentary system In: K. F. Jubb, P. C. Kennedy, and N. Palmer (Eds.) Pathology of Domestic Animals Academic Press San Diego, CA 1–318

    Google Scholar 

  • Barron, N. S. 1942 Enterotoxaemia in goats Vet. Rec. 54 82

    Google Scholar 

  • Barroso, L. A., S. Z. Wang, C. J. Phelps, J. L. Johnson, and T. D. Wilkins. 1990 Nucleotide sequence of the Clostridium difficile toxin B gene Nucleic Acids Res. 18 4004

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, J. G., and S. L. Gorbach. 1977 Pseudomembranous enterocolitis (antibiotic-related colitis) Adv. Intern. Med. 22 455–476

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, J. G., T. W. Change, M. Gurwith, S. I. Gorbach, and A. B. Onderdonk. 1978 Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis due to toxin-producing clostridia N. Engl. J. Med. 298(10) 531–534

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, J. G. 1995 Antibiotic-associated diarrhea In: M. J. Blaser, P. D. Smith, J. I. Ravdin, H. B. Greenberg, and R. L. Guerrant (Eds.) Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract Raven Press New York, NY 893–904

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartley, S. L., and V. R. Dowell Jr. 1991 Comparison of media for the isolation of Clostridium difficile from fecal specimens Lab. Med. 22 335–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Baskerville, M., M. Wood, and J. H. Seamer. 1980 Clostridium perfringens type E enterotoxaemia in rabbits Vet. Rec. 107 18–19

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ba-Thein, W., M. Lyristis, K. Ohtani, I. T. Nisbet, H. Hayashi, J. I. Rood, and T. Shimizu. 1996 The virR/virS locus regulates the transcription of genes encoding extracellular toxin production in Clostridium perfringens J. Bacteriol. 178 2514–252

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baxendell, S. A. 1988 The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Goats University of Sydney Post-graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science Sydney, Australia 89

    Google Scholar 

  • Bean, N. H., J. S. Goulding, C. Lao, and F. J. Angulo. 1996 Surveillance for foodborne-disease outbreaks-United States, 1988–1982 Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 45 1–54

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belanger, S. D., M. Boissinot, N. Clairoux, F. J. Picard, and M. G. Bergeron. 2002 Rapid detection of Clostridium difficile in feces by real-time PCR J. Clin. Microbiol. 41 730–734

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, G. H. 1961 Diagnosis of enterotoxaemia: the effect of chloroform added as a preservative to intestinal contents of test animals Vet. Rec. 73 168–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Betancor, A. B., M. R. Fermepin, L. D. Betancor, and R. A. De Torres. 1999 Detection of the etx gene (epsilon toxin-inducer) in plasmids of high molecular weight in Clostridium perfringens type D FEMS Immun. Med. Microbiol. 24 373–377

    Google Scholar 

  • Billington, S. J., E. U. Wieckowski, M. R. Sarker, D. Bueschel, J. G. Songer, and B. A. McClane. 1998 Clostridium perfringens type E animal enteritis isolates with highly conserved, silent enterotoxin sequences Infect. Immun. 66 4531–4536

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, T. E., D. G. Butler, and J. A. Bell. 1983 Enterotoxaemia in the goat: the humoral response and local tissue reaction following vaccination with two different bacterin-toxoids Can. J. Comp. Path. Med. 47 127–132

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, T. E., D. G. Butler, J. F. Prescott, and B. P. Wilcock. 1991 Differences in signs and lesions in sheep and goats with enterotoxaemia induced by intraduodenal infusion of Clostridium perfringens type D Am. J. Vet. Res. 52 1147–1152

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell, T. E., and D. G. Butler. 1992 Clinical signs, treatment and postmortem lesions in dairy goats with enterotoxaemia: 13 cases (1979–1982) J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 200 214–217

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blood, D. C., O. M. Radostits, and J. A. Henderson. 1983 Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Horses Bailliere Tindall London, UK 553

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, R. P., and M. A. Culshaw. 1986 Faecal metronidazole concentrations during oral and intravenous therapy for antibiotic colitis due to Clostridium difficile Gut 27 1169–1172

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borriello, S. P., A. R. Welch, H. E. Larson, F. Barclay, M. F. Stringer, and B. A. Bartholomew. 1984 Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens: A possible cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea Lancet 1 305–307

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borriello, S. P. 1985a Newly described clostridial diseases of the gastrointestinal tract: Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin-associated diarrhea and neutropenic enterocolitis due to Clostridium septicum In: S. P. Borriello (Ed.) Clostridia in Gastrointestinal Disease CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 223–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Borriello, S. P., and F. E. Barclay. 1985b Protection of hamsters against Clostridium difficile ileocaecitis by prior colonization with nonpathogenic strains J. Med. Microbiol. 19 339–350

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borriello, S. P., F. E. Barclay, A. R. Welch, M. F. Stringer, G. N. Watson, R. K. T. Williams, D. V. Seal, and K. Sullens. 1985c Epidemiology of diarrhea caused by enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens J. Med. Microbiol. 20 363–372

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borriello, S. P., H. A. Davies, and F. E. Barclay. 1988 Detection of fimbriae amongst strains of Clostridium difficile FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 49 65–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Borriello, S. P. 1995 Clostridial diseases of the gut Clin. Infect. Dis 20 (Suppl. 2) S242–S250

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braun, M., C. Herholz, R. Straub, B. Choisat, J. Frey, J. Nicolet, and P. Kuhnert. 2000 Detection of the ADP-ribosyltransferase toxin gene (cdtA) and its activity in Clostridium difficile isolates from equidae FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 184 29–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brynestad, S., B. Synstad, and P. E. Granum. 1997 The Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin gene is on a transposable element in type A human food poisoning strains Microbiology 143 2109–2115

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brynestad, S., and P. E. Granum. 1999 Evidence that Tn5565, which includes the enterotoxin gene in Clostridium perfringens, can have a circular form which may be a transposition intermediate FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 170 281–286

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brynestad, S., M. R. Sarker, B. A. McClane, P. E. Granum, and J. I. Rood. 2001 The enterotoxin (CPE) plasmid from Clostridium perfringens is conjugative Infect. Immun. 69 3483–3487

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bueschel, D. M., B. H. Jost, S. J. Billington, H. Trinh, and J. G. Songer. 2003 Prevalence of cpb2, encoding beta2 toxin, in Clostridium perfringens field isolates: correlation of genotype with phenotype Vet. Microbiol. 94 121–129

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bullen, J. J. 1952 Enterotoxaemia of sheep: Clostridium welchii type D in the alimentary tract of normal animals J. Path. Bact. 62 201–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Bullen, J. J., and I. I. Batty. 1957 Enterotoxaemia of sheep Vet. Rec. 69 1268–1276

    Google Scholar 

  • Bullen, J. J. 1963 The influence of the diet on the pathogenesis of enterotoxaemia of sheep Bull. Int. Off. Epizoot. 59 1453–1461

    Google Scholar 

  • Buxton, D., and K. T. Morgan. 1976 Studies of the lesions produced in the brain of colostrum deprived lambs by Clostridium welchii (Clostridium perfringens) type D toxin J. Comp. Pathol. 86 435–447

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buxton, D. 1978a Further studies on the mode of action of Clostridium welchii type D epsilon toxin J. Med. Microbiol. 11 293–298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buxton, D., K. A. Linklater, and D. A. Dyson. 1978b Pulpy kidney disease and its diagnosis by histological examination Vet. Rec. 102 241

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buxton, D., N. S. Macleod, and T. B. Nicolson. 1981 Focal symmetrical encephalomalacia in young cattle Vet. Rec. 108 459

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Canard, B., B. Saint-Joanis, and S. T. Cole. 1992 Genomic diversity and organization of virulence genes in the pathogenic anaerobe Clostridium perfringens Molec. Microbiol. 6 1421–1429

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carman, R. J., and J. C. M. Lewis. 1983 Recurrent diarrhea in a dog associated with Clostridium perfringens type A Vet. Rec. 112 342–343

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carman, R. J. 1997a Clostridium perfringens in spontaneous and antibiotic-associated diarrhoea of man and other animals Rev. Med. Microbiol. 8 (Suppl. 1) S43–S45

    Google Scholar 

  • Carman, R. J., S. Perelle, and M. R. Popoff. 1997b Binary toxins from Clostridium spiroforme and Clostridium perfringens In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 359–368

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrillo, B. J., M. I. Pasini, J. J. Pereira, J. M. Miquet, F. Olaechea, and M. Suarez. 1982 Enterotoxaemia en ovinos causada por Clostridium perfringens tipo D Rev. Invest. Agrop. 17 55–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, G. R. 1984 Diagnostic Pin Veterinary Microbiology Charles C. Thomas Springfield, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Cerquetti, M., A. Pantosti, P. Stefanelli, and P. Mastrantonio. 1992 Purification and characterization of an immunodominant 36 kDa antigen present on the cell surface of Clostridium difficile Microb. Pathog. 13 271–279

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chakrabarti, G., X. Zhou, and B. A. McClane. 2003 Death pathways activated in CaCo-2 cells by Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin Infect. Immun. 71 4260–4270

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, J. K., and J. I. Rood. 2000 The VirR response regulator from Clostridium perfringens binds independently to two imperfect direct repeats located upstream of the pfoA promoter J. Bacteriol. 182 57–66

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, S. K., J. Y. Kim, and J. M. Park. 1991 Studies on Clostridium perfringens infection of piglets Res. Rep. Rural Dev. Adm. Vet. 33 25–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Clabots, C. R., S. J. Gerding, M. M. Olson, L. R. Peterson, and D. N. Gerding. 1989 Detection of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriage by an alcohol shock procedure J. Clin. Microbiol. 27 2386–2387

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, S. T., and B. T. Canard. 1997 Structure, Organization, and Evolution of the Genome of Clostridium perfringens In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 49–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Collie, R. E., and B. A. McClane. 1998a Evidence that the enterotoxin gene can be episomal in Clostridium perfringens isolates associated with nonfoodborne human gastrointestinal diseases J. Clin. Microbiol. 36 30–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collie, R. E., J. F. Kokai-Kun, and B. A. McClane. 1998b Phenotypic characterization of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens isolates from non-foodborne human gastrointestinal diseases Anaerobe 4 69–79

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, J. E., M. E. Bergeland, D. Bouley, A. L. Ducommun, D. H. Francis, and P. Yeske. 1989 Diarrhea associated with Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin in neonatal pigs J. Vet. Diag. Invest. 1 351–353

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corfield, A. P., S. A. Wagner, J. R. Clamp, M. S. Kriaris, and L. C. Hoskins. 1992 Mucin degradation in the human colon: production of sialidase, sialate O-acetylesterase, N-acetyl-neuraminate lyase, arylesterase, and glycosulfatase activities by strains of fecal bacteria Infect. Immun. 60 3971–3978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cornillot, E., B. Saint-Joanis, G. Daube, S. Katayama, S., P. E. Granum, B. Carnard, and S. T. Cole. 1995 The enterotoxin gene (cpe) of Clostridium perfringens can be chromosomal or plasmid-borne Molec. Microbiol. 15 639–647

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Czeczulin, J. R., P. C. Hanna, and B. A. McClane. 1993 Cloning, nucleotide sequencing, and expression of the Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin gene in Escherichia coli Infect. Immun. 61 3429–3439

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Czeczulin, J. R., R. E. Collie, and B. A. McClane. 1996 Regulated expression of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin in naturally cpe-negative type A, B, and C isolates of C. perfringens Infect. Immun. 64 3301–3309

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dart, A. J. 1988 Enterotoxaemia in a foal due to Clostridium perfringens type A Austral. Vet. J. 65 330–331

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, H. A., and S. P. Borriello. 1990 Detection of capsule in strains of Clostridium difficile of varying virulence and toxigenicity Microb. Pathog. 9 141–146

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denison, A. C., D. C. VanMetre, R. J. Callan, P. Dinsmore, G. L. Mason, and R. P. Ellis. 2002 Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome in dairy cattle: 22 cases (1997–2000) J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 221 686–689

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickie, C. W., D. L. Klinkerman, and E. F. Petrie. 1978 Enterotoxaemia in two foals J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 173 306–307

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dillon, S. T., E. J. Rubin, M. Yakubovich, C. Pothoulakis, J. T. LaMont, L. A. Feig, and R. J. Gilbert. 1995 Involvement of Ras-Related Rho proteins in the mechanism of action of Clostridium difficile toxin A and toxin B Infect. Immun. 63 1421–1426

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dove, C. H., S. Z. Wang, S. B. Price, C. J. Phelps, D. M. Lyerly, T. D. Wilkins, and J. L. Johnson. 1990 Molecular characterization of the Clostridium difficile toxin A gene Infect. Immun. 58 480–488

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drolet, R., R. Higgins, and A. Cecyre. 1990 Necrohemorrhagic enterocolitis caused by Clostridium perfringens type C in a foal Can. Vet. J. 31 449–450

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, C. L., E. A. Rokos, C. M. Christenson, and J. I. Rood. 1978 Multiple plasmids in different toxigenic types of Clostridium perfringens: possible control of beta toxin production In: D. Schlessinger (Ed.) Microbiology 1978 ASM Press Washington, DC 246–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupuy, B., G. Daube, M. R. Popoff, and S. T. Cole. 1997 Clostridium perfringens urease genes are plasmid-borne Infect. Immun. 65 2313–2320

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dupuy, B., and A. L. Sonenshein. 1998 Regulated transcription of Clostridium difficile toxin genes Molec. Microbiol. 27 107–120

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, D. C. 1986 Tapeworm (Moniezia expansa) and its effects on sheep production: The evidence reviewed NZ Vet. J. 34 61–65

    Google Scholar 

  • El-Seedy, F. R. 1990 Studies on necrotic enteritis in chickens Vet. Med. J. Giza 38 407–417

    Google Scholar 

  • Estrada Correa, A. E., and D. J. Taylor. 1989 Porcine Clostridium perfringens type A spores, enterotoxin, and antibody to enterotoxin Vet. Rec. 124 606–610

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fekety, R., J. Silva, C. Kauffman, B. Buggy, and H. G. Deery. 1989 Treatment of antibiotic-associated Clostridium difficile colitis with oral vancomycin; comparison of two dosage regimens Am. J. Med. 86 15–19

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fekety, R. 1997 Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis Am. J. Gastroenterol. 92 739–750

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez Miyakawa, M. E., and F. A. Uzal. 2002 The early effects of Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin in ligated intestinal loops of goats and sheep Vet. Res. Commun. 27 231–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Ficken, M. D., and D. P. Wages. 1997 Necrotic enteritis Diseases of Poultry Iowa State Press Ames, IA 261–264

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, H. I., and E. A. Gibson. 1955 Studies on piglet mortality. 2: Clostridium welchii infection Vet. Rec. 67 31–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Finnie, J. W., Blumberg, P. C., and J. Manavis. 1999 Neuronal damage in rat brains by Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin J. Comp. Pathol. 120 415–420

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, G. R., T. Barker, M. W. Welter, and C. J. Welter. 1988 Diarrhea in young pigs: Comparing the incidence of the five most common infectious agents Vet. Med. 83 80–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, M. E. 1998 Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids, Llama, Alpaca, Vicuña, Guanaco Iowa State University Press Ames, IA 166–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujita, K., J. Katahira, Y. Horiguchi, N. Sonoda, M. Furuse, and S. Tskuita. 2000 Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin binds to the second extracellular loop of claudin-3, a tight junction membrane protein FEBS Lett. 476 258–261

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fukata, T., Y. Hadate, E. Baba, T. Uemura, and A. Arakawa. 1988 Influence of Clostridium perfringens and its toxin in germ-free chickens Res. Vet. Sci. 44 68–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fukata, T., Y. Hadate, E. Baba, and A. Arakawa. 1991 Influence of bacteria on Clostridium perfringens infections in young chickens Avian Dis. 35 224–247

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garmory, H. S., N. Chanter, N. P. French, D. Busechel, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball. 2000 Occurrence of Clostridium perfringens β2-toxin amongst animals determined using genotyping and subtyping PCR assays Epidemiol. Infect. 124 61–67

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garnier, T., and S. T. Cole. 1988a Complete nucleotide sequence and genetic organization of the bacteriocinogenic plasmid, pIP404, from Clostridium perfringens Plasmid 19 134–150

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garnier, T., and S. T. Cole. 1988b Studies of UV-inducible promoters from Clostridium perfringens in vivo and in vitro Molec. Microbiol. 2 607–614

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • George, W. L., V. L. Sutter, D. Citron, and S. M. Finegold. 1979 Selective and differential medium for isolation of Clostridium difficile J. Clin. Micriobiol. 9 214–219

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerding, D., and J. S. Brazier. 1993 Optimal methods for identifying Clostridium difficile infections Clin. Infect. Dis. 16 S439–S442

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibert, M., C. Jolivet-Reynaud, and M. R. Popoff. 1997 Beta2 toxin, a novel toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens Gene 203 65–73

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibert, M., L. Petit, S. Raffestin, A. Okabe, and M. R. Popoff. 2000 Clostridium perfringens iota toxin requires activation of both binding and enzymatic components for cytopathic activity Infect. Immun. 68 3848–3853

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gkiourtzidis, K., J. Frey, E. Bourtzi-Hatzopoulou, N. Iliadis, and K. Sarris. 2001 PCR detection and prevalence of alpha, beta, beta 2, epsilon, iota and enterotoxin genes in Clostridium perfringens isolated from lambs with clostridial dysentery Vet. Microbiol. 82 39–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gottschalk, G. 1979 Bacterial Metabolism Springer-Verlag New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Granum, P. E., J. R. Whitaker, and R. Skjelkvale. 1981 Trypsin activation of enterotoxin from Clostridium perfringens type A Biochim. Biophys. Acta 668 325–332

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Granum, P. E., and M. Richardson. 1991 Chymotrypsin treatment increases the activity of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin Toxicon 29 445–453

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, C., J. R. Aguilar Ramirez, R. E. Pounder, T. Williams, M. Danvers, S. R Marper, and P. Noone. 1983 Clostridium difficile and inflammatory bowel disease Gut 24 713–717

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Griner, L. A., and F. K. Bracken. 1953 Clostridium perfringens (type C) in acute hemorrhagic enteritis of calves J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc 122 99–102

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guilbault, C., A. C. Labbe, L. Poirier, L. Busque, C. Beliveau, and M. Laverdiere. 2002 Development and evaluation of a PCR method for detection of the Clostridium difficile toxin B gene in stool specimens J. Clin. Microbiol. 40 2288–2290

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gulke, I., G. Pfeifer, J. Liese, M. Fritz, F. Hofmann, K. Aktories, and H. Barth. 2001 Characterization of the enzymatic component of the ADP-ribosyltransferase toxin CDTa from Clostridium difficile Infect. Immun. 69 6004–6011

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gumerlock, P. H., Y. J. Tang, J. B. Weiss, and J. Silva Jr. 1993 Specific detection of toxigenic strains of Clostridium difficile in stool specimens J. Clin. Microbiol. 31 507–511

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guss, S. B. 1977 Management and Diseases of Dairy Goats Dairy Goat Journal Publishing Corporation Tucson, AZ 106–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Hafiz, S., and C. L. Oakley. 1975 Clostridium difficile: Isolation and characteristics J. Med. Microbiol. 9 129–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. C., and E. O’Toole. 1935 Intestinal flora in new-born infants with a description of a new pathogenic anaerobe. Bacillus difficilis Am. J. Dis. Child. 49 390–402

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, G. A., D. M. Lyerly, and J. L. Johnson. 1996 Transcriptional analysis of the toxigenic element of Clostridium difficile Microb. Pathog. 22 143–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, P. C., A. P. Wnek, and B. A. McClane. 1989 Molecular cloning of the 3’ half of the Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin gene and demonstration that this region encodes receptor-binding activity J. Bacteriol. 171 6815–6820

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, P. C., T. A. Mietzner, G. K. Schoolnik, and B. A. McClane. 1991 Localization of the receptor-binding region of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin utilizing cloned toxin fragments and synthetic peptides: The 30 C-terminal amino acids define a functional binding region J. Biol. Chem. 266 11037–11043

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, P. C., E. U. Wieckowski, T. A. Mietzner, and B. A. McClane. 1992 Mapping functional regions of Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin Infect. Immun. 60 2110–2114

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, S. P., M. Denmead, N. Parekh, and P. E. Granum. 1999 Cationic currents induced by Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin in human intestinal Caco-2 cells J. Med. Microbiol. 48 235–243

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, B., and P. T. Hooper. 1967 Enterotoxaemia of calves due to Clostridium welchii type E Austral. Vet. J. 43 360–363

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, W. J. 1956 A focal symmetrical encephalomalacia of lambs NZ Vet. J. 4 129–135

    Google Scholar 

  • Helmboldt, C. F., and E. S. Bryant. 1971 The pathology of necrotic enteritis in domestic fowl Avian Dis. 15 775–780

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herholz, C., R. Miserez, J. Nicolet, J. Frey, M. Popoff, M. Gibert, H. Gerber, and R. Straub. 1999 Prevalence of beta 2 toxigenic Clostridium perfringens in horses with intestinal disorders J. Clin. Microbiol. 37 358–361

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hjerpe, C. A. 1990 Clostridial disease vaccines Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 6 222–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, F., C. Busch, U. Prepens, K. Aktories, and I. Just. 1997 Localization of the glucosyltransferase activity of Clostridium difficile toxin B to the N-terminal part of the holotoxin J. Biol. Chem. 272 11074–11078

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hornitzky, M. A. Z., and J. Glastonbury. 1993 Enterotoxaemia in sheep, goats and cattle In: L. A. Corner and T. J. Bagust (Eds.) Australian Standard Diagnostic Techniques for Animal Diseases Standing Committee on Agricultural and Resource Management, CSIRO Melbourne, Australia 5

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard-Martin, M., R. J. Morton, C. W. Qualls Jr., and C. G. MacAllister. 1986 Clostridium perfringens enterotoxaemia in a newborn foal J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 189 564–565

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hundsberger, T., V. Braun, M. Weidmann, P. Leukel, M. Sauerborn, and C. von Eichel-Streiber. 1997 Transcription analysis of the genes tcdA-E of the pathogenicity locus of Clostridium difficile Eur. J. Biochem. 244 735–742

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, S. E. C., I. N. Clarke, D. C. Kelley, and R. W. Titball. 1992 Cloning and nucleotide sequencing of the Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin gene and its expression in Escherichia coli Infect. Immun. 60 102–110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, S. E. C., J. E. Brown, P. C. Oynston, J. Sakurai, and R. W. Titball. 1993 Molecular genetic analysis of beta-toxin of Clostridium perfringens reveals sequence homology with alpha-toxin, gamma-toxin, and leukocidin of Staphylococcus aureus Infect. Immun. 61 3958–3965

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Itodo A. E., A. A. Adesiyun, J. O. Adekeye, and J. U. Umoh. 1986 Toxin-types of Clostridium perfringens strains isolated from sheep, cattle and paddock soils in Nigeria Vet. Microbiol. 12 93–96

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen, B. C. 1960 The experimental reproduction of pulpy kidney disease J. SA Vet. Med. Assoc. 31 205–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, L. L., L. V. McFarland, P. Dearing, V. Raisys, and F. D. Schoenknecht. 1989 Identification of Clostridium difficile in stool specimens by culture-enhanced gas-liquid chromatography J. Clin. Microbiol. 27 2218–2221

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, J. L., C. J. Phelps, L. A. Barroso, M. D. Roberts, D. M. Lyerly, and T. D. Wilkins. 1990 Cloning and expression of the toxin B gene of Clostridium difficile Curr. Microbiol. 20 397–401

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, M. W., G. R. Fitzgerald, M. W. Welter, and C. J. Welter. 1992 The six most common pathogens responsible for diarrhea in newborn pigs Vet. Med. 87 382–386

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S., and D. N. Gerding. 1997 Enterotoxemic infections In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 117–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S., S. A. Kent, K. J. O’Leary, M. M. Merrigan, S. P. Sambol., L. R. Peterson, and D. N. Gerding. 2001 Fatal pseudomembranous colitis associated with a variant Clostridium difficile strain not detected by toxin A immunoassay Ann. Intern. Med. 135 434–438

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jolivet-Reynaud, C., M. R. Popoff, M. A. Vinit, P. Ravisse, H. Moreau, and J. E. Alouf. 1986 Enteropathogenicity of Clostridium perfringens beta toxin and other clostridial toxins Zbl. Bakteriol. S15 145–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Just, I., G. Fritz, K. Aktories, M. Giry, M. R. Popoff, P. Boquet, S. Hegenbarth, and C. von Eichel-Streiber. 1994 Clostridium difficile toxin B acts on the GTP-binding protein Rho J. Biol. Chem. 269 10706–10712

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Just, I., J. Selzer, C. von Eichel-Streiber, and K. Aktories. 1995a The low molecular mass GTP-binding protein Rho is affected by toxin A from Clostridium difficile J. Clin. Invest. 95 1026–1031

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Just, I., J. Selzer, M. Wilm, C. von Eichel-Streiber, M. Mann, and K. Aktories. 1995b Glucosylation of Rho proteins by Clostridium difficile toxin B Nature 375 500–503

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Just, I., M. Wilm, J. Selzer, G. Rex, C. von Eichel-Streiber, M. Mann, and K. Aktories. 1995c The enterotoxin from Clostridium difficile (ToxA) monoglucosylates the Rho proteins J. Biol. Chem. 270 13932–13939

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kader, H. A., D. A. Piccoli, A. F. Jawad, K. L. McGowan, and E. S. Maller. 1998 Single toxin detection is inadequate to diagnose Clostridium difficile diarrhea in pediatric patients Gastroenterology 115 1329–1334

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaldhusdal, M., and M. Hofshagen. 1992 Barley inclusion and avoparcin supplementation in broiler diets. 2: Clinical, pathological, and bacteriological findings in a mild form of necrotic enteritis Poul. Sci. 71 1145–1153

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamiya, S., K. Yamakawa, H. Ogura, and S. Nakamura. 1989 Recovery of spores of Clostridium difficile altered by heat or alkali J. Med. Microbiol. 28 217–221

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kanoe, M., S. Inoue, T. Abe, T. Anzai, M. Kamada, H. Imagawa, and T. Kanemaru. 1990 Isolation of Clostridium perfringens from foals Microbios 64 153–158

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karasawa, T., T. Nojiri, Y. Hayashi, T. Maegawa, K. Yamakawa, X. M. Wang, and S. Nakamura. 1999 aboratory diagnosis of toxigenic Clostridium difficile by polymerase chain reaction: presence of toxin genes and their stable expression in toxigenic isolates from Japanese individuals J. Gastroenterol. 34 41–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katahira, J., N. Inoue, Y. Horiguchi, M. Matsuda, and N. Sugimoto. 1997a Molecular cloning and functional characterization of the receptor for Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin J. Cell Biol. 136 1239–1247

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katahira, J., H. Sugiyama, N. Inoue, Y. Horiguchi, M. Matsuda, and N. Sugimoto. 1997b Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin utilizes two structurally related membrane proteins as functional receptors in vivo J. Biol. Chem. 272 26652–26658

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, N., C. Y. Ou, H. Kato, S. L. Bartley, C. C. Luo, G. E. Killgore, and K. Ueno. 1993 Detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in stool specimens by the polymerase chain reaction J. Infect. Dis. 167 455–458

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, H., N. Kato, K. Watanabe, N. Iwai, H. Nakamura, T. Yamamoto, K. Suzuki, S. M. Kim, Y. Chong, and E. B. Wasito. 1998 Identification of toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive Clostridium difficile by PCR J. Clin. Microbiol. 36 2178–2182

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, H., N. Kato, S. Katow, T. Naegawa, S. Nakamura, and D. M. Lyerly. 1999 Deletions in the repeating sequences of the toxin A gene of toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive Clostridium difficile strains FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 175 197–203

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keighley, M. R. B., D. Youngs, M. Johnson, R. N Allan, and D. W. Burdon. 1982 Clostridium difficile toxin in acute diarrhoea complicating inflammatory bowel disease Gut 23 410–414

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, K. K., S. J. Norris, W. H. Beckenhauer, and R. C. White. 1977 Vaccination of cattle and sheep with combined Clostridium perfringens type C and type D toxoid Am. J. Vet. Res. 38 1515–1518

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King, N. B. 1980 Pregnancy toxaemia and enterotoxaemia In: Proceedings, Refresher Course for Veterinarians, Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science University of Sydney Sydney, Australia 52 209–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Kokai-Kun, J. F., and B. A. McClane. 1996 Evidence that region(s) of the Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin molecule remain exposed on the external surface of the mammalian plasma membrane when the toxin is sequestered in small or large complex Infect. Immun. 64 1020–1025

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kokai-Kun, J. F., and B. A. McClane. 1997a Deletion analysis of the Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin Infect. Immun. 65 1014–1022

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kokai-Kun, J. F., and B. A. McClane. 1997b The Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 325–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Kokai-Kun, J. F., K. Benton, E. U. Wieckowski, and B. A. McClane. 1999 Identification of a Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin region required for large complex formation and cytotoxicity by random mutagenesis Infect. Immun. 67 6534–6541

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruth, S. A., J. F. Prescott, M. K. Welch, and M. H. Brodsky. 1989 Nosocomial diarrhea associated with enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens infection in dogs J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 195 331–334

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhl, S. J., Y. J. Tang, L. Navarro, P. H. Gumerlock, and J. Silva Jr. 1993 Diagnosis and monitoring of Clostridium difficile infections with the polymerase chain reaction Clin. Infect. Dis. 16 (Suppl. 4) S234–S238

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuijper, E. J., J. de Weerdt, H. Kato, N. Kato, A. P. van Dam, E. R. van der Vorm, J. Weel, C. van Rheenen, and J. Dankert. 2001 Nosocomial outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea due to a clindamycin-resistant enterotoxin A-negative strain Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis 20 528–534

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Labbe, R. G., and C. L. Duncan. 1977 Evidence for stable messenger ribonucleic acid during sporulation and enterotoxin synthesis by Clostridium perfringens type A J. Bacteriol. 129 843–849

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larson, H. E., J. V. Parry, A. B. Price, D. R. Davies, J. Dolby, and D. A. Tyrrell. 1977 Undescribed toxin in pseudomembranous colitis BMJ 1 1246–1248

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, G. W. 1997 The pathogenesis of enteritis necroticans In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 198–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, S. E. C., and R. W. Titball. 1997 The Clostridium perfringens β-toxin In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 243–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. D., D. K. Turgeon, C. W. Ko, T. R. Fritsche, and C. M. Surawicz. 2003 Clinical correlation of toxin and common antigen enzyme immunoassay testing in patients with Clostridium difficile disease Am. J. Gastroenterol. 98 1569–1572

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levett, P. N. 1984 Effect of antibiotic concentration in a selective medium on the isolation of Clostridium difficile from faecal specimens J. Clin. Pathol. 38 233–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Levett, P. N. 1987 Production of p-cresol by Clostridium difficile on different basal media Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 5 71–73

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, C. J., B. E. Preece, and B. A. Synge. 1995 Increased incidence of clostridial disease Vet. Rec. 36 23 and 595

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, C. 1998 Aspects of clostridial disease in sheep In Practice 9 494–500

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, C. J. 2000 Clostridial diseases In: W. B. Martin and I. D. Aitken (Eds.) Diseases of Sheep Blackwell Science Oxford, UK 131–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Libby, J. M., and T. D. Wilkins. 1982 Production of antitoxins to two toxins of Clostridium difficile and immunological comparison of the toxins by cross-neutralization studies Infect. Immun. 35 374–376

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Limaye, A. P., D. K. Turgeon, B. T. Cookson, and T. R. Fritsche. 2002 Pseudomembranous colitis caused by a toxin A-B+ strain of Clostridium difficile J. Clin. Microbiol. 38 1696–1697

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T. S., M. W. Musch, K. Sugi, M. M. Walsh-Reitz, M. J. Robeleski, B. A. Hendrickson, C. Pothoulakis, J. T. Lamont, and E. B. Chang. 2003 Protective role of HSP72 against Clostridium difficile toxin A-induced intestinal epithelial cell dysfunction Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Physiol. 284 C1073–C1082

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Long, H., C. D. Crean, W. H. Lee, O. W. Cummings, and T. G. Gabig. 2001 Expression of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin receptors claudin-3 and claudin-4 in prostate cancer epithelium Cancer Res. 61 7878–7881

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Long, J. R., and R. B. Truscott. 1976 Necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens. III. Reproduction of the disease Can. J. Comp. Med. 40 53–59

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyerly, D. M., K. E. Saum, D. MacDonald, and T. D. Wilkins. 1985 Effect of toxins A and B given intragastrically to animals Infect. Immun. 47 349–352

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyerly, D. M., M. D. Roberts, C. J. Phelps, and T. D. Wilkins. 1986 Properties of toxins A and B of Clostridium difficile FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 33 31–35

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyerly, D. M., J. L. Johnson, and T. D. Wilkins. 1989 Characterization of the binding portion of Clostridium difficile toxin A Microecol. Ther. 19 233–237

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyerly, D. M., L. A. Barroso, and T. D. Wilkins. 1991 Identification of the latex test-reactive protein of Clostridium difficile as glutamate dehydrogenas J. Clin. Microbiol. 29 2639–2642

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyerly, D. M., L. A. Barroso, T. D. Wilkins, C. Depitre, and G. Corthier. 1992 Characterization of a toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive strain of Clostridium difficile Infect. Immun. 60(11) 4633–4639

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyerly, D. M., L. M. Neville, D. T. Evans, J. Fill, S. Allen, W. Greene, R. Sautter, P. Hnatuck, D. J. Torpey, and R. Schwalbe. 1998 Multicenter evaluation of the Clostridium difficile TOX A/B TEST J. Clin. Microbiol. 36 184–190

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyristis, M., A. E. Bryant, J. Sloan, M. M. Awad, I. T. Nisbet, D. L. Stevens, and J. I. Rood. 1994 Identification and molecular analysis of a locus that regulates extracellular toxin production in Clostridium perfringens Molec. Microbiol. 12 761–777

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Macarie, I., C. Cure, and A. Pop. 1980 Histopathology of natural Clostridium perfringens type A infection in mink Lucr. Stiint. Inst. Agron. “Nicolae Balcescu” Med. Vet. 23 23–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackinnon, J. D. 1989 Enterotoxaemia caused by Clostridium perfringens type C Pig Vet. J. 22 119–125

    Google Scholar 

  • MacLaren, R., T. H. Morton, and D. A. Kuhl. 1997 Effective management of Clostridium difficile colitis Hosp. Pharm. 32 1126–1132

    Google Scholar 

  • Mani, N., D. Lyras, L. Barroso, P. Howarth, T. Wilkins, J. I. Rood, A. L. Sonenshein, and B. Dupuy. 2002 Environmental response and autoregulation of Clostridium difficile txeR, a sigma factor for toxin gene expression J. Bacteriol. 184 5971–5978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manteca, C., G. Daube, T. Jauniaux, A. Linden, V. Pirson, J. Detilleux, A. Ginter, and P. Coppe. 2002 A role for the Clostridium perfringens beta2 toxin in bovine enterotoxaemia? Vet. Microbiol. 86 191–202

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marler, L. M., J. A. Siders, L. C. Wolters, Y. Pettigrew, G. L. Skitt, and S. D. Allen. 1992 Comparison of five cultural procedures for isolation of Clostridium difficile from stools J. Clin. Microbiol. 30 514–516

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marvaud, J. C., M. Gibert, K. Inoue, Y. Fujinaga, K. Oguma, and M. R. Popoff. 1998a botR/A is a positive regulator of botulinum neurotoxin and associated non-toxin protein genes in Clostridium botulinum A Molec. Microbiol. 29 1009–1018

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marvaud, J. C., U. Eisel, T. Binz, H. Niemann, and M. R. Popoff. 1998b TetR is a positive regulator for the tetanus toxin gene in Clostridium tetani and is homologous to BotR Infect. Immun. 66 5698–5702

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masuda, K., M. Itoh, and T. Kawata. 1989 Characterization and reassembly of a regular array in the cell wall of Clostridium difficile GAI 4131 Microbiol. Immunol. 33 287–298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A., and J. L. McDonel. 1981 Protective effects of osmotic stabilizers on morphological and permeability alterations induced in Vero cells by Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin Biochim. Biophys. Acta 641 401–409

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A., and A. P. Wnek. 1990 Studies of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin action at different temperatures demonstrate a correlation between complex formation and cytotoxicity Infect. Immun. 58 3109–3115

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A. 1992 Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin: structure, action and detection J. Food Safety 12 237–252

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A. 2000 Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin and intestinal tight junctions Trends Microbiol. 8 145–146

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A. 2001a Clostridium perfringens In: M. P. Doyle, L. R. Beuchat, and T. J. Montville (Eds.) Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 2nd ed ASM Press Washington, DC 351–372

    Google Scholar 

  • McClane, B. A. 2001b The complex interactions between Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin and epithelial tight junctions Toxicon 39 1781–1791

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDonel, J. L. 1986 Toxins of Clostridium perfringens types A, B, C, D, and E In: F. Dorner and H. Drews (Eds.) Pharmacology of Bacterial Toxins Pergamon Press Oxford, UK 477–517

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarland, L. V., C. M. Surawicz, and W. E. Stamm. 1990 Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection N. Engl. J. Med. 320 204–210

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarland, L. V., C. M. Surawicz, R. N. Greenberg, K. E. Bowen, S. A. Melcher, and M. E. Mulligan. 1998 Possible role of cross-transmission between neonates and mothers with recurrent Clostridium difficile infections Am. J. Infect. Contr. 27 301–303

    Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, G., J. E. Moulton, and S. E. Rood. 1958 Lamb losses associated with Clostridium perfringens type A J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 133 219–221

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mead, P. S., L. Slutsker, V. Dietz, L. F. McCaig, J. S. Bresee, C. Shapiro, P. M. Griffen, and R. V. Tauxe. 1999 Food-related illness and death in the United States Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5 607–625

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meer, R. R., and J. G. Songer. 1997 Multiplex PCR method for genotyping Clostridium perfringens Am. J. Vet. Res. 58 702–705

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mehlig, M., M. Moos, V. Braun, B. Kalt, D. E. Mahony, and C. von Eichel-Streiber. 2001 Variant toxin B and a functional toxin A produced by Clostridium difficile C34 FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 198 171–176

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Melville, S. B., R. Labbe, and A. L. Sonenshein. 1994 Expression from the Clostridium perfringens cpe promoter in C. perfringens and Bacillus subtilus Infect. Immun. 62 5550–5558

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Melville, S. B., R. E. Collie, and B. A. McClane. 1997 Regulation of enterotoxin production in Clostridium perfringens In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 471–487

    Google Scholar 

  • Merchen, N. R. 1988 Digestion, absorption and excretion in ruminants In: D. C. Church (Ed.) The Ruminant Animal Waveland Press Prospect Heights, IL 172–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Michl, P., M. Buchholz, M. Rolke, S. Kunsch, M. Lohr, B. McClane, S. Tsukita, G. Leder, G. Adler, and T. M. Gress. 2001 Claudin-4: A new target for pancreatic cancer treatment using Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin Gastroenterology 121 678–684

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mietzner, T. A., J. F. Kokai-Kun, P. C. Hanna, and B. A. McClane. 1992 A conjugated synthetic peptide corresponding to the C-terminal region of Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin elicits an enterotoxin-neutralizing antibody response in mice Infect. Immun. 60 3947–3951

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, G., and K. Linklater. 1983 Differential diagnosis of scouring in lambs In Practice 5 4–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, W. J. 2001 Biology and physiology In: H. Bahl and P. Dürre (Eds.) Clostridia: Biotechnology and Medical Applications Wiley-VCH Weinheim, Germany 49–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyamoto, K., G. Chakrabarti, Y. Morino, and B. A. McClane. 2002 Organization of the plasmid cpe locus of Clostridium perfringens type A isolates Infect. Immun. 70 4261–4272

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miyata, S., O. Matsushita, J. Minami, S. Katayama, S. Shimamoto, and A. Okabe. 2001 Cleavage of a C-terminal peptide is essential for hepatmerization of Clostridium perfringens-toxin in the synaptosomal membrane J. Biol. Chem. 276 13778–13783

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miyata, S., J. Minami, E. Tamia, O. Matsushita, S. Shimamoto, and A. Okabe. 2002 Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin forms a hepatmeric pore within the detergent-insoluble microdomains of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells and rat synaptosomes J. Biol. Chem. 277 39463–39468

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moncrief, J. S., L. A. Barroso, and T. D. Wilkins. 1997 Positive regulation of Clostridium difficile toxins Infect. Immun. 65 1105–1108

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moncrief, J. S., D. M. Lyerly, and T. D. Wilkins. 2000a Molecular biology of large clostridial toxins In: K. Aktories and I. Just (Eds.) Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology Springer-Verlag Berlin, Germany 145 and 333–359

    Google Scholar 

  • Moncrief, J. S., L. Zheng, L. M. Neville, and D. M. Lyerly. 2000b Genetic characterization of toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive Clostridium difficile isolates by PCR J. Clin. Microbiol. 38 3072–3075

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mulligan, M. E. 1988 General epidemiology, potential reservoirs, and typing procedures In: R. D. Rolfe and S. M. Finegold (Eds.) Clostridium difficile: Its Role in Intestinal Disease Academic Press New York, NY 229–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Munday, B. L., R. W. Mason, and W. J. Hartley. 1976 Encephalopathies in cattle in Tasmania Austral. Vet. J. 52 92–96

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nabuurs, M. J. A., J. Haagsma, E. J. van der Molen, and P. J. van der Heijden. 1983 Diarrhea in one to three week-old piglets associated with Clostridium perfringens type A Ann. Rech. Vet. 14 408–411

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nagahama, M., S. Hayashi, S. Morimitsu, and J. Sakurai. 2003 Biological activities and pore formation of Clostridium perfringens beta toxin in HL 60 cells J. Biol. Chem. 278 36934–36941

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nairn, M. E., and V. W. Bamford. 1967 Necrotic enteritis of broiler chickens in western Australia Austral. Vet. J. 43 49–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niilo, L. 1965 Bovine enterotoxaemia. III. Factors affecting the stability of the toxins of Clostridium perfringens types A, C, and D Can. Vet. J. 6 38–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niilo, L. 1978 Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens type A isolated from intestinal contents of cattle, sheep and chickens Can. J. Comp. Med. 42 357–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niilo, L. 1980 Clostridium perfringens in animal disease: a review of current knowledge Can. Vet. J. 21 141–148

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niilo, L. 1986 Experimental production of hemorrhagic enterotoxaemia by Clostridium perfringens type C in maturing lambs Can. J. Vet. Res. 50 32–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niilo, L. 1988 Clostridium perfringens type C enterotoxaemia Can. Vet.. J. 29 658–664

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolling, J., G. Breton, M. V. Omelchenko, K. S. Makarova, Q. Zeng, R. Gibson, H. M. Lee, J. Dubois, D. Qiu, J. Hitt, Y. I. Wolf, R. L. Tatusov, F. Sabathe, L. Doucette-Stamm, P. Soucaille, M. J. Daly, G. N. Bennett, E. V. Koonin, and D. R. Smith. 2001 Genome sequence and comparative analysis of the solvent-producing bacterium Clostridium acetobutyliticum J. Bacteriol. 183 4823–4838

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odendaal, M. W., J. J. Visser, N. Bergh, and J. S. Botha. 1989 The effect of passive immunization on active immunity against Clostridium perfringens type D in lambs Ondertepoort J. Vet. Res. 56 251–255

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ohnuna, K. H., H. Saino, M. Taguchi, A. Ohno, and T. Matsuda. 1992 Necrotic enteritis due to Clostridium perfringens type C in newborn piglets J. Jpn. Vet. Med. Assoc. 45 738–741

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohtani, K., H. I. Kawsar, K. Okumura, H. Hayashi, and T. Shimizu. 2003 The VirR/VirS regulatory cascade affects transcription of plasmid-encoded putative virulence genes in Clostridium perfringens FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 222 137–141

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Onderka, D. K., C. C. Langevin, and J. A. Hanson. 1990 Fibrosing cholehepatitis in broiler chickens induced by bile duct ligations or inoculation of Clostridium perfringens Can. J. Vet. Res. 54 285–290

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oxer, D. T. 1956 Enterotoxaemia in goats Austral. Vet. J. 32 62–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Pace, L. W., J. M. Kreeger, M. A. Miller, S. E. Turnquist, J. R. Fischer, G. C. Johnson, J. R. Turk, L. L. Pittman, W. H. Fales, C. W. Maddox, A. A. Rottinghaus, and H. S. Gosser. 1992 Necropsy findings from Vietnamese potbellied pigs, 33 cases J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 4 351–352

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pantosti, A., M. Cerquetti, F. Viti, G. Ortisi, and P. Mastrantonio. 1989 Immunoblot analysis of serum immunoglobulin G response to surface proteins of Clostridium difficile in patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhoea J. Clin. Microbiol. 27 2594–2597

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Payne, D., and P. Oyston. 1997 The Clostridium perfringens toxin In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 439–450

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, E. G., O. R. Hedstrom, R. Sonn, and J. Wedam. 1986 Hemorrhagic enteritis caused by Clostridium perfringens type C in a foal J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188 1309–1310

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Percy, D. H., and S. W. Barthold. 2001 The rabbit Pathology of Laboratory Rodents and Rabbits, 2nd ed Iowa State University Press Ames, IA 315

    Google Scholar 

  • Perelle, S., M. Gibert, P. Bourlioux, G. Corthier, and M. R. Popoff. 1997 Production of a complete binary toxin (actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase) by Clostridium difficile CD196 Infect. Immun. 65 1402–1407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petit, L., M. Gibert, and M. R. Popoff. 1999 Clostridium perfringens: toxinotype and genotype Trends Microbiol. 7 104–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petit, L., M. Gibert, A. Gourch, M. Bens, A. Vendewalle, and M. R. Popoff. 2003 Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin rapidly decreases membrane barrier permeability of polarized MDCK cells Cell Microbiol. 5 155–164

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pituch, H., N. van den Braak, W. van Leeuwen, A. van Belkum, G. Martirosian, P. Obuch-Woszczatynski, M. Luczak, and F. Meisel-Mikolajczyk. 2001 Clonal dissemination of a toxin-A-negative/toxin-B-positive Clostridium difficile strain from patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhea in Poland Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 7 442–446

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popoff, M. R. 1984 Bacteriological examination in enterotoxaemia of sheep and lamb Vet. Rec. 114 324

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popoff, M. R., and A. Jestin. 1985 Enteropathogenicity of purified Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin in the pig Am. J. Vet. Res. 46 2147–2148

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pothoulakis, H., R. Sullivan, D. A. Melnick, G. Tridafilapoulos, A. S. Gadenne, T. Meshulam, and J. T. LaMont. 1988 Clostridium difficile toxin A stimulates intracellular calcium release and chemotactic response in human granulocytes J. Clin. Invest. 81 1741–1745

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poxton, I. R., and T. D. I. Cartmill. 1982 Immunochemistry of the cell-surface carbohydrate antigens of Clostridium difficile J. Gen. Microbiol. 128 1365–1370

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott, J. F. 1979 The prevention of experimentally induced necrotic enteritis in chicken by avoparcin Avian Dis. 4 1073

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, S. B., C. J. Phelps, T. D. Wilkins, and J. L. Johnson. 1987 Cloning of the carbohydrate-binding portion of the toxin A gene of Clostridium difficile Curr. Microbiol. 16 55–60

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ratz, F., E. Szabo, and E. Szentmiklossy. 1989 Observations on the pathomorphology of necrotic enteritis in chickens Magy. Allatorv. Lapja 44 133–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehg, J. E., and S. P. Pakes. 1982 Implication of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens iota toxins in experimental lincomycin-associated colitis of rabbits Lab. Anim. Sci. 32 253–257

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reinke, C. M. 1998 ASHP therapeutic position statement on the preferential use of metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease Am. J. Health. Syst. Pharm. 55 1407–1411

    Google Scholar 

  • Rifkin, G. D., F. R. Fekety, J. Silva, and R. B. Sack. 1977 Antibiotic-induced colitis implication of a toxin neutralized by Clostridium sordellii antitoxin Lancet 2 1103–1106

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley, P. H., and A. F. Gush. 1983 Immunization schedule for the prevention of infectious necrotic enteritis caused by Clostridium perfringens type C in piglets Vet. Rec. 112 201–202

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rood, J. I. 1998 Virulence genes of Clostridium perfringens Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 52 333–360

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rupnik, M., V. Braun, F. Soehn, M. Janc, M. Hofstetter, R. Laufenberg-Feldmann, and C. von Eichel-Streiber. 1997 Characterization of polymorphisms in the toxin A and B genes of Clostridium difficile FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 148 197–202

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rupnik, M., V. Avesani, M. Janc, C. von Eichel-Streiber, and M. Delmee. 1998 A novel toxinotyping scheme and correlation of toxinotypes with serogroups of Clostridium difficile isolates J. Clin. Microbiol. 36 2240–2247

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rupnik, M. 2002 Binary toxin producing Clostridium difficile Anaerobe 8 164–165 (abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Rupnik, M., N. Kato, M. Grabnar, and H. Kato. 2003 New types of toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive strains among Clostridium difficile isolates from Asia J. Clin. Microbiol. 41 1118–1125

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, W. C. 1970 Type A enterotoxaemia in captive wild goats J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 157 643–646

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakurai, J., M. Nagahama, J. Hisatsune, N. Katunuma, and H. Tsuge. 2003 Clostridium perfringens ι toxin, ADP-ribosyltransferase: Structure and mechanism of action Adv. Enz. Regul. 43 361–377

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sarker, M. R., R. J. Carman, and B. A. McClane. 1999 Inactivation of the gene (cpe) encoding Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin eliminates the ability of two cpe-positive C. perfringens type A human gastrointestinal disease isolates to affect rabbit ileal loops Molec. Microbiol. 33 946–958

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sarker, M. R., R. P., Shivers, S. G. Sparks, V. K. Juneja, and B. A. McClane. 2000 Comparative experiments to examine the effects of heating on vegetative cells and spores of Clostridium perfringens isolates carrying plasmid versus chromosomal enterotoxin genes Appl. Env. Microbiol. 66 3234–3240

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Savidge, T. C., W. H. Pan, P. Newman, M. O’Brien, P. M. Anton, and C. Pothoulakis. 2003 Clostridium difficile toxin B is an inflammatory enterotoxin in human intestine Gastroenterology 125 413–420

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seifert, H. S. H., H. Bohnel, S. Heitefuss, J. Rengel, R. Schaper, U. Sukop, and U. Wernery. 1992 Isolation of C. perfringens type A from enterotoxaemia in camels and production of a locality-specific vaccine In: W. R. Allen, A. J. Higgins, I. G. Mayhew, D. H. Snow, and J. F. Wade (Eds.) Proceedings of the 1st International Camel Conference R&W Publications Newmarket, UK 65–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Shane, S. M., J. E. Gyimah, K. S. Harrington, and T. G. Snider. 1985 Etiology and pathogenesis of necrotic enteritis Vet. Res. Commun. 9 269–287

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shanks, P. L. 1949 Enterotoxaemia in goats Vet. Rec. 61 262–264

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, S., E. Klein, and B. A. McClane. 1994 Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin induces concurrent development of tissue damage and fluid accumulation in the rabbit ileum J. Diarrh. Dis. Res. 12 200–207

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu, T., W. Ba-Thein, M. Tamaki, and H. Hayashi. 1994 The virR gene, a member of a class of two-component response regulators, regulates the production of perfringolysin O, collagenase, and hemagglutinin in Clostridium perfringens J. Bacteriol. 176 1616–1623

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu, T., K. Ohtani, H. Hirakawa, K. Ohshima, A. Yamashita, T. Shiba, N. Ogasawara, M. Hattori, S. Kuhara, and H. Hayashi. 2002 Complete genome sequence of Clostridium perfringens, an anaerobic flesh-eater Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99 996–1001

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, U., C. M. Van Itallie, L. L. Mitic, J. M. Anderson, and B. A. McClane. 2000 CaCo-2 cells treated with Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin form multiple large complex species, one of which contains the tight junction protein occludin J. Biol. Chem. 275 18407–18417

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, U., L. L. Mitic, E. U. Wieckowski, J. M. Anderson, and B. A. McClane. 2001 Comparative biochemical and immunochemical studies reveal differences in the effects of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin on polarized CaCo-2 cells versus Vero cells J. Biol. Chem. 276 33402–33412

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinha, H. B., and P. B. Kuppuswamy. 1969 Heat resistant variants of Clostridium welchii in the alimentary tract of healthy goats Indian J. Anim. Health 8 89–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinha, M. N. 1970 The incidence of clostridial species in the alimentary tract of apparently healthy goats Kajian Veterinarian (Singapore) 2 171–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Sivsammye, G., and H. V. Sims. 1990 Presumptive identification of Clostridium difficile by detection of p-cresol in prepared peptone yeast glucose broth supplemented with p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid J. Clin. Microbiol. 28 1851–1853

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skjelkvale, R., and T. Uemura. 1977 Experimental diarrhea in human volunteers following oral administration of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin J. Appl. Bacteriol. 46 281–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. C., and D. M. Sherman. 1994 Goat Medicine Lea and Febiger Pennsylvania, PA 620

    Google Scholar 

  • Song, K. P., and C. Faust. 1998 Molecular analysis of the promoter region of the Clostridium difficile toxin B gene that is functional in Escherichia coli J. Med. Microbiol. 47 309–316

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Songer, J. G. 1996 Clostridial enteric diseases of domestic animals Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9 216–234

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Songer, J. G. 1998 Clostridial diseases of small ruminants Vet. Res. 29 219–232

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, S. G., R. J. Carman, M. R. Sarker, and B. A. McClane. 2001 Genotyping of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens isolates associated with gastrointestinal disease in North America J. Clin Microbiol. 39 883–888

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stackebrandt, E. 1997 Phylogenetic relationships In: J. I. Rood, B. A. McClane, J. G. Songer, and R. W. Titball (Eds.) The Clostridia: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis Academic Press London, UK 3–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Stackebrandt, E., I. Kramer, J. Swiderski, and H. Hippe. 1999 Phylogenetic basis for taxonomic dissection of the genus Clostridium FEMS Immun. Med. Microbiol. 24 253–258

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Staempfli, H. R., H. Townsed, and J. F. Prescott. 1991 Prognostic features and clinical presentation of acute idiopathic enterocolitis in horses Can. Vet. J. 32 11–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinsthorsdottir, V., V. Fridriksdottir, E. Gunnarsson, and O. S. Andresson. 1995 Expression and purification of Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin glutathionine S-transferase fusion proteins FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 130 273–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterne, M., and I. Batty. 1975 Criteria for diagnosis of clostridial infections Pathogenic Clostridia Butterworths London, UK 94–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Strelau, E., B. Wagner, M. Wagner, and W. Karsch. 1989 Demonstration of capsules on Clostridium difficile Zbl. Bakteriol. Hyg. 270 456–461

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stringer, M. F. 1985 Clostridium perfringens type A food poisoning In: S. P. Borriello (Ed.) Clostridia in Gastrointestinal Disease CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 118–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Stubbs, S., M. Rupnik, M. Gilbert, J. Brazier, B. Duerden, and M. R. Popoff. 2000 Production of an actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase (binary toxin) by strains of Clostridium difficile FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 186 307–312

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, D., J. Isobe, S. Hosorogi, K. Kimata, M. Shimizu, K. Katori, Y. Gyobu, Y. Nagai, T. Yamagishi, T. Karasawa, and S. Nakamura. 2003 An outbreak of food-borne gastroenteritis caused by Clostridium perfringens carrying the cpe gene on a plasmid Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 56 137–139

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, N. S., G. M. Thorne, and J. G. Bartlett. 1980 Separation of an enterotoxin from the cytotoxin of Clostridium difficile Clin. Res. 28 285

    Google Scholar 

  • Tedesco, F. J., R. W. Barton, and D. H. Alpers. 1974 Clindamycin-associated colitis Ann. Intern. Med. 81 429–433

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, P. I., N. E. Downey, and R. S. Dreadon. 1956 Mortality in lambs due to enterotoxaemia associated with heavy infestations of Moniezia expansa NZ Vet. J. 4 161–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Timoney, J. F., J. H. Gillespie, F. W. Scott, and J. E. Barlough. 1988 The genus Clostridium Timoney, J. F., J. H. Gillespie, F. W. Scott, and J. E. Barlough In: Hagan and Bruner’s Microbiology and Infectious Diseases of Domestic Animals Comstock Publishing Ithaca, NY 198–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Torres, J. F. 1991 Purification and characterization of toxin B from a strain of Clostridium difficile that does not produce toxin A J. Med. Microbiol. 35 40–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Triadafilopoulos, G., C. Pothoulakis, M. J. O’Brien, and J. T. LaMont. 1987 Differential effects of Clostridium difficile toxins A and B on rabbit ileum Gastroenterology 93 273–279

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Triadafilopoulos, G., C. Pothoulakis, R. Weiss, C. Giampaolo, and J. T. LaMont. 1989 Comparative study of Clostridium difficile toxin A and cholera toxin in rabbit ileum Gastroenterology 97 1186–1192

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tschirdewahn, B., S. Notermans, K. Wernars, and F. Untermann. 1991 The presence of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens strains in faeces of various animals Int. J. Microbiol. 14 175–178

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, K. D., P. E. Carrig, and T. D. Wilkins. 1990 Toxin A of Clostridium difficile is a potent cytotoxin J. Clin. Microbiol. 28 869–871

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, K. D., and T. D. Wilkins. 1991 Toxin A of Clostridium difficile binds to the human carbohydrate antigens I, X, and Y Infect. Immun. 59 73–78

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tunnicliff, E. A. 1933 A strain of Clostridium welchii producing fatal dysentery in lambs J. Infect. Dis. 52 407–412

    Google Scholar 

  • Tvede, M., P. O. Schiotz, and P. A. Krasilnikoff. 1990 Incidence of Clostridium difficile in hospitalized children Acta Paediatr. Scand. 79 292–299

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Udovicic, I., M. Martinjak, S. Kosorok, and Z. Kelneric. 1990 Vaccination of pregnant sows with a Clostridium perfringens type C and D bacterin-toxoid vaccine to prevent necrotic enteritis in piglets Prax. Vet. Zagreb 38 25–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., M. I. Pasini, F. V. Olaechea, C. A. Robles, and A. Elizondo. 1994 An outbreak of enterotoxaemia caused by Clostridium perfringens type D in goats in Patagonia Vet. Rec. 135 279–280

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., and W. R. Kelly. 1996 Enterotoxaemia in goats Vet. Res. Comm. 20 481–492

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., and W. R. Kelly. 1997a The effects of intravenous administration of Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin on young goats and lambs J. Comp. Pathol. 116 63–71

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., J. W. R. Glastonbury, W. R. Kelly, and R. Thomas. 1997b Caprine enterotoxaemia associated with cerebral microangiopathy Vet. Rec. 141 224–226

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., and W. R. Kelly. 1998a Protection of goats against experimental enterotoxaemia by vaccination with Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxoid Vet. Rec. 142 722–725

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., D. A. V. Bodero, W. R. Kelly, and K. H. Nielsen. 1998b Variability of serum antibody responses to a commercial Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxoid vaccine in goat kids Vet. Rec. 143 472–474

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., and R. B. Marcellino. 2002a Clostridium perfringens in clinically healthy sheep of Patagonia, Argentina R. Goldman In: Abstracts of the Anaerobe Olympiad Anaerobe The 6th Biennial Congress of the Anaerobe Society of the Americas Park City, UT 8 168

    Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., W. R. Kelly, W. E. Morris, and R. Assis. 2002b Effects of intravenous injection of Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin in calves J. Comp. Pathol. 126 71–75

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., W. R. Kelly, R. Thomas, M. Hornitzky, and F. Galea. 2003 Comparison of four techniques for the detection of Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin in intestinal contents and other body fluids of sheep and goats J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 15 94–99

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A. 2004a Diagnosis of Clostridium perfringens intestinal infections in sheep and goats Anaerobe 2 135–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Uzal, F. A., W. R. Kelly, W. E. Morris, J. Bermudez, and M. Biason. 2004b The pathology of experimental Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxaemia in sheep J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 16 403–411

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Baelen, D. and Devriese L. A. 1987 Presence of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin in intestinal samples from farm animals with diarrhoea of unknown origin Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. B. 34 713–6

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van-Damme-Jongsten, M., J. Rodhouse, R. J. Gilbert, and S. Notermans. 1990 Synthetic DNA probes for detection of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens isolated from outbreaks of food poisoning J. Clin. Microbiol. 28 131–133

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Tonder, E. M. 1975 Notes on some disease problems in Angora goats in South Africa Vet. Med. Rev. 1/2 109–138

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Eichel-Streiber, C., D. Suckau, M. Wachter, and U. Hadding. 1988 Cloning and characterization of overlapping DNA fragments of the toxin-A gene of Clostridium difficile J. Gen. Microbiol. 135 55–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Eichel-Streiber, C., and M. Sauerborn. 1990 Clostridium difficile toxin A carries a C-terminal repetitive structure homologous to the carbohydrate binding region of streptococcal glycosyltransferases Gene 96 107–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Eichel-Streiber, C., R. Laufenberg-Feldman, S. Sartingen, J. Schilze, and M. Sauerborn. 1992a Comparative sequence analysis of the Clostridium difficile toxins A and B Molec. Gen. Genet. 233 260–268

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Eichel-Streiber, C., M. Sauerborn, and H. K. Kuramitsu. 1992b Evidence for a modular structure of the homologous repetitive C-terminal carbohydrate-binding sites of Clostridium difficile toxins and Streptococcus mutans glucosyltransferases J. Bacteriol. 174 6707–6710

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Eichel-Streiber, C. 1995 Molecular biology of the Clostridium difficile toxins In: M. Sebald (Ed.) Genetics and Molecular Biology of the Anaerobic Bacteria Springer-Verlag New York, NY 264–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Eichel-Streiber, C., P. Boquet, and M. Sauerborn. 1996 Large clostridial cytotoxins—a family of glucosyltransferases modifying small GTP-binding proteins Trends Microbiol. 4 375–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Eichel-Streiber, C., I. Zec-Pirnat, M. Grabnar, and M. Rupnik. 1999 A nonsense mutation abrogates production of a functional enterotoxin A in Clostridium difficile toxinotype VIII strains of serogroups F and X FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 178 163–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Vustina, U. D. 1988 Infectious diseases of muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) Krolikovod. 1 23–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagenknecht-Wiesner, A., M. Weidmann, V. Braun, P. Leukel, M. Moos, and C. von Eichel-Streiber. 1997 Delineation of the catalytic domain of the Clostridium difficile toxin B-10463 to an enzymatically active N-terminal 467 amino acid fragment FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 152 109–116

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warny, M., A. Fatimi, E. F. Bostwick, D. C. Laine, F. Lebel, J. T. LaMont, C. Pothoulakis, and C. P. Kelly. 1999 Bovine immunoglobulin concentration-Clostridium difficile retains C. difficile toxin neutralizing activity after passage through the human stomach and small intestine Gut 44(2) 212–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Wen, Q., K. Miyamoto, and B. A. McClane. 2003 Development of a duplex PCR genotyping assay for distinguishing Clostridium perfringens type A isolates carrying chromosomal enterotoxin (cpe) genes from those carrying plasmid-borne enterotoxin (cpe) genes J. Clin. Microbiol. 41 1494–1498

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wieckowski, E. U., A. P. Wnek, and B. A. McClane. 1994 Evidence that an 50kDa mammalian plasma membrane protein with receptor-like properties mediates the amphiphilicity of specifically-bound Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin J. Biol. Chem. 269 10838–10848

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wieckowski, E., J. F. Kokai-Kun, and B. A. McClane. 1998 Characterization of membrane-associated Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin following Pronase treatment Infect. Immun. 66 5897–5905

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wierup, M., and J. A. DiPietro. 1981 Bacteriological examination of equine fecal flora as a diagnostic tool for equine intestinal clostridiosis by Clostridium perfringens Am. J. Vet. Res. 42 2167–2169

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox, M. H. 1998 Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 41 41–46

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins, T. D., and K. D. Tucker. 1989 Clostridium difficile toxin A (enterotoxin) uses Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc as a functional receptor Microecol. Ther. 19 225–227

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins, T. D., and D. M. Lyerly. 2003 Clostridium difficile testing: after 20 years, still challenging J. Clin. Microbiol. 41 531–534

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, K. H. 1983 Efficiency of various bile salt preparations for stimulation of Clostridium difficile spore germination J. Clin. Microbiol. 18 1017–1019

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfhagen, M., A. C. Fluit, R. Torensma, M. Poppelier, and J. Verhoef. 1994 Rapid detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in fecal samples by magnetic immuno PCR assay J. Clin. Microbiol. 32 1629–1633

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Worrall, E. E., L. Natalia, P. Ronohardjo, P. Tarmudji, and S. Partoutomo. 1987 Enterotoxaemia in water buffaloes caused by Clostridium perfringens type A Penyakit-Hewan 19 17–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, Y., and S. B. Melville. 1998 Identification and characterization of sporulation-dependent promoters upstream of the enterotoxin gene (cpe) of Clostridium perfringens J. Bacteriol. 180 136–142

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer, M., S. Scherer, and M. J. Loessner. 2002 Genomic analyses of Clostridium perfringens bacteriophage phi3624, which integrates into guaA and possibly affects sporulation J. Bacteriol. 184 4359–4368

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Springer-Verlag

About this entry

Cite this entry

McClane, B.A., Uzal, F.A., Fernandez Miyakawa, M.E., Lyerly, D., Wilkins, T. (2006). The Enterotoxic Clostridia. In: Dworkin, M., Falkow, S., Rosenberg, E., Schleifer, KH., Stackebrandt, E. (eds) The Prokaryotes. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30744-3_22

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics