Evolution of Venomous Animals and Their Toxins

In recent years, the field of Toxinology has expanded substantially. On the one hand it studies venomous animals, plants and micro organisms in detail to understand their mode of action on targets. While on the other, it explores the biochemical composition, genomics and proteomics of toxins and venoms to understand their three interaction with life forms (especially humans), development of antidotes and exploring their pharmacological potential. Therefore, Toxinology has deep linkages with biochemistry, molecular biology, anatomy and pharmacology. In addition, there is a fast developing applied subfield, clinical toxinology, which deals with understanding and managing medical effects of toxins on human body. Given the huge impact of toxin-based deaths globally, and the potential of venom in generation of drugs for so-far incurable diseases (for example, Diabetes, Chronic Pain), the continued research and growth of the field is imminent. This has led to the growth of research in the area and the consequent sc

Prof P. Gopalakrishnakone is a world leader in the characterization of the structure and function of animal and plant toxins and chemical poisons, which contain highly specific and biologically active components. He has contributed significantly to the body of knowledge regarding the anatomy of snake venom glands and the development of drug candidates from animal toxins. Prof Gopal pioneered the development of the NUS Venom and Toxin Research Programme, which has put NUS at the forefront of toxin research internationally. The technology platform that has been built over the years under the Venom and Toxin Research Programme, coupled with its extensive library of protein and peptides, has enabled Prof Gopal and his team to complete the discovery process of lead candidates in time and to transfer valuable supplementary information to the next discovery steps involving profiling and optimization of lead candidates. The objective is to characterize the venom components and natural toxins at a molecular level and identify promising compounds amenable to the development of novel human therapeutics. Prof Gopal’s lab has identified over twenty peptides with unique medical indications from venom-based proteins with some already under development as therapeutics. Prof Gopal’s research studies includes structure function studies (toxin detection, biosensors, antitoxins and neutralization factors), toxicogenomics and expression studies, antimicrobial peptides from venoms and toxins and PLA2 inhibitors as potential drug candidate for inflammatory diseases. The techniques he employs include quantum dots to toxinology, computational biology, microarrays and protein chips. He has patented analgesic peptide, anti inflammatory peptide as well as anti rheumatoid arthritis peptides. He is exploring various possibilities of delivery systems for these peptides to target sites and administration of these peptides orally, transdermally, ocular and injections. Prof Gopal has over 100 international peer-reviewed papers in venom and toxin research, drug discovery, biosensors, and toxinogenomics. His research awards include the Outstanding University Researcher Award from the National University of Singapore (1998); Ministerial Citation, NSTB Year 2000 Award in Singapore; and the Research Excellence Award from the Faculty of Medicine, National University of Singapore (2003). His awards in teaching include, Faculty Teaching Excellence Award 2003/4 & NUS Annual Teaching Excellence Award 2003/4. He also received the Faculty Teaching Excellence Award in 2009/10 and the Annual Teaching Excellence Award, NUS FOR 2009/10. He is the President of International Society on Toxinology till 2012, and is a member of the editorial board of Toxicon, the official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

Anita Malhotra received her BA in Zoology from Oxford University (Jesus College) in 1985 and her PhD from the University of Aberdeen in 1992. She then moved to Bangor University in 1994, where she took up a lectureship in 1995. She is now Director of the Graduate School of the College of Natural Sciences. She is a molecular ecologist and evolutionary geneticist, who developed the first robust and largely comprehensive molecular phylogenies for Asian pitvipers, based on both mitchodondrial and nuclear markers. This work revealed a number of cryptic species and resulted in the radical revision of the taxonomy of the group. She has used this phylogeny to test hypotheses about the evolution of specific venom components such as the phospholipase A2 enzymes, using a multidisciplinary genomic, proteomic and functional approach. She has active collaborations all over the world with other academic institutions and research-based SMEs (particularly in Europe, India, China and Japan). Other research involves investigation of the dynamics of natural selection, vicariance and evolutionary response to changing environmental conditions, and honeybee geneticsin the UK.  Author of over 100 publications, her work regularly attracts media attention and been covered by BBC Wildlife, the Sunday Telegraph, and Radio 4 as well as in local news media in the UK and abroad. She was a recipient of the Zoological Society of London’s Thomas Henry Huxley award and Marsh prize in 1992 and a co-author on the article that received the 2004 Joseph B. Slowinski Award for Excellence in Venomous Snake Systematics. She is a member of the IUCN Viper Specialist Group (Asia) and was recently invited to sit on the taxonomy review committee for this group. She is also guest professor at Shenyang University and Yibin University in China.