Summary Title
Since their discovery in 1991, triplet repeat mutations have been found to be the cause of genomic fragile sites, two of which are linked to mental retardation, myotonic dystrophy, and several late-onset neurodegenerative diseases. In all cases, these mutations exhibit gametic and/or somatic instability once they have expanded into the mutant range. The mutations are located in coding and noncoding gene regions and have been found to act by dominant and recessive mechanisms. A wide range of mouse models has been generated to understand both of the mechanisms that underlie repeat instability and the molecular pathogenesis of the diseases. Mouse models have proved extremely useful in these goals and are now also being used for the preclinical testing of therapeutic compounds. This chapter reviews the successes and limitations of the approaches that have been developed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Verkerk, A. J., Pieretti, M., Sutcliffe, J. S., et al. (1991) Identification of a gene (FMR-1) containing a CGG repeat coincident with a breakpoint cluster region exhibiting length variation in fragile X syndrome. Cell 65, 905–914.
La Spada, A. R., Wilson, E. M., Lubahn, D. B., et al. (1991) Androgen receptor gene mutations in X-linked spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Nature 352, 77–79.
Campuzano, V., Montermini, L., Molto, M. D., et al. (1996) Friedreich’s ataxia: autosomal recessive disease caused by an intronic GAA triplet repeat expansion. Science 271, 1423–1427.
Gusella, J. F. and MacDonald, M. E. (2000) Molecular genetics: unmasking polyglutamine triggers in neurodegenerative disease. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 1, 109–115.
Mankodi, A. and Thornton, C. A. (2002) Myotonic syndromes. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 15, 545–552.
Koob, M. D., Moseley, M. L., Schut, L. J., et al. (1999) An untranslated CTG expansion causes a novel form of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA8). Nature Genet. 21, 379–384.
O’Donnell, W. T. and Warren, S. T. (2002) A decade of molecular studies of fragile X syndrome. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 25, 315–338.
Jin, P. and Warren, S. T. (2003) New insights into fragile X syndrome: from molecules to neurobehaviors. Trends Biochem. Sci. 28, 152–158.
The Dutch-Belgian Fragile X Consortium (1994) Fmr1 knockout mice: a model to study fragile X mental retardation. Cell 78, 23–33.
Frank Kooy, R. (2003) Of mice and the fragile X syndrome. Trends Genet. 19, 148–154.
Slegtenhorst-Eegdeman, K. E., de Rooij, D. G., Verhoef-Post, M., et al. (1998) Macroorchidism in FMR1 knockout mice is caused by increased Sertoli cell proliferation during testicular development. Endocrinology 139, 156–162.
Comery, T. A., Harris, J. B., Willems, P. J., et al. (1997) Abnormal dendritic spines in fragile X knockout mice: maturation and pruning deficits. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 5401–5404.
Irwin, S. A., Idupulapati, M., Gilbert, M. E., et al. (2002) Dendritic spine and dendritic field characteristics of layer V pyramidal neurons in the visual cortex of fragile-X knockout mice. Am. J. Med. Genet. 111, 140–146.
Chen, L. and Toth, M. (2001) Fragile X mice develop sensory hyperreactivity to auditory stimuli. Neuroscience 103, 1043–1050.
Bontekoe, C. J., Bakker, C. E., Nieuwenhuizen, I. M., et al. (2001) Instability of a (CGG)98 repeat in the Fmr1 promoter. Hum. Mol. Genet. 10, 1693–1699.
Patel, P. I. and Isaya, G. (2001) Friedreich ataxia: from GAA triplet-repeat expansion to frataxin deficiency. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 69, 15–24.
Puccio, H. and Koenig, M. (2002) Friedreich ataxia: a paradigm for mitochondrial diseases. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 12, 272–277.
Cossee, M., Puccio, H., Gansmuller, A., et al. (2000) Inactivation of the Friedreich ataxia mouse gene leads to early embryonic lethality without iron accumulation. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 1219–1226.
Puccio, H., Simon, D., Cossee, M., et al. (2001) Mouse models for Friedreich ataxia exhibit cardiomyopathy, sensory nerve defect and Fe-S enzyme deficiency followed by intramitochondrial iron deposits. Nature Genet. 27, 181–186.
Miranda, C. J., Santos, M. M., Ohshima, K., et al. (2002) Frataxin knockin mouse. FEBS Lett. 512, 291–297.
Pook, M. A., Al-Mahdawi, S., Carroll, C. J., et al. (2001) Rescue of the Friedreich’s ataxia knockout mouse by human YAC transgenesis. Neurogenetics 3, 185–193.
Meola, G. (2000) Myotonic dystrophies. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 13, 519–525.
Ranum, L. P. and Day, J. W. (2002) Dominantly inherited, non-coding microsatellite expansion disorders. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 12, 266–271.
Reddy, S., Smith, D. B., Rich, M. M., et al. (1996) Mice lacking the myotonic dystrophy protein kinase develop a late onset progressive myopathy. Nature Genet. 13, 325–335.
Jansen, G., Groenen, P. J., Bachner, D., et al. (1996) Abnormal myotonic dystrophy protein kinase levels produce only mild myopathy in mice. Nature Genet. 13, 316–324.
Mounsey, J. P., Mistry, D. J., Ai, C. W., et al. (2000) Skeletal muscle sodium channel gating in mice deficient in myotonic dystrophy protein kinase. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 2313–2320.
Berul, C. I., Maguire, C. T., Aronovitz, M. J., et al. (1999) DMPK dosage alterations result in atrioventricular conduction abnormalities in a mouse myotonic dystrophy model. J. Clin. Invest. 103, R1–R7.
Sarkar, P. S., Appukuttan, B., Han, J., et al. (2000) Heterozygous loss of Six5 in mice is sufficient to cause ocular cataracts. Nature Genet. 25, 110–114.
Klesert, T. R., Cho, D. H., Clark, J. I., et al. (2000) Mice deficient in Six5 develop cataracts: implications for myotonic dystrophy. Nature Genet. 25, 105–109.
Wakimoto, H., Maguire, C. T., Sherwood, M. C., et al. (2002) Characterization of cardiac conduction system abnormalities in mice with targeted disruption of Six5 gene. J. Interv. Cardiol. Electrophysiol. 7, 127–135.
Liquori, C. L., Ricker, K., Moseley, M. L., et al. (2001) Myotonic dystrophy type 2 caused by a CCTG expansion in intron 1 of ZNF9. Science 293, 864–867.
Mankodi, A., Logigian, E., Callahan, L., et al. (2000) Myotonic dystrophy in transgenic mice expressing an expanded CUG repeat. Science 289, 1769–1773.
Mankodi, A., Takahashi, M. P., Jiang, H., et al. (2002) Expanded CUG repeats trigger aberrant splicing of ClC-1 chloride channel pre-mRNA and hyperexcitability of skeletal muscle in myotonic dystrophy. Mol. Cell 10, 35–44.
Seznec, H., Agbulut, O., Sergeant, N., et al. (2001) Mice transgenic for the human myotonic dystrophy region with expanded CTG repeats display muscular and brain abnormalities. Hum. Mol. Genet. 10, 2717–2726.
Mangiarini, L., Sathasivam, K., Seller, M., et al. (1996) Exon 1 of the HD gene with an expanded CAG repeat is sufficient to cause a progressive neurological phenotype in transgenic mice. Cell 87, 493–506.
Schilling, G., Becher, M. W., Sharp, A. H., et al. (1999) Intranuclear inclusions and neuritic aggregates in transgenic mice expressing a mutant N-terminal fragment of huntingtin. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8, 397–407.
Laforet, G. A., Sapp, E., Chase, K., et al. (2001) Changes in cortical and striatal neurons predict behavioral and electrophysiological abnormalities in a transgenic murine model of Huntington’s disease. J. Neurosci. 21, 9112–9123.
Reddy, P. H., Williams, M., Charles, V., et al. (1998) Behavioural abnormalities and selective neuronal loss in HD transgenic mice expressing mutated full-length HD cDNA. Nature Genet. 20, 198–202.
Hodgson, J. G., Agopyan, N., Gutekunst, C. A., et al. (1999) A YAC mouse model for Huntington’s disease with full-length mutant huntingtin, cytoplasmic toxicity, and selective striatal neurodegeneration. Neuron 23, 181–192.
Shelbourne, P. F., Killeen, N., Hevner, R. F., et al. (1999) A Huntington’s disease CAG expansion at the murine Hdh locus is unstable and associated with behavioural abnormalities in mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8, 763–774.
Levine, M. S., Klapstein, G. J., Koppel, A., et al. (1999) Enhanced sensitivity to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation in transgenic and knockin mouse models of Huntington’s disease. J. Neurosci. Res. 58, 515–532.
Wheeler, V. C., White, J. K., Gutekunst, C. A., et al. (2000) Long glutamine tracts cause nuclear localization of a novel form of Huntington in medium spiny striatal neurons in HdhQ92 and HdhQ111 knock-in mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 503–513.
Lin, C. H., Tallaksen-Greene, S., Chien, W. M., et al. (2001) Neurological abnormalities in a knock-in mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Hum. Mol. Genet. 10, 137–144.
Burright, E. N., Clark, H. B., Servadio, A., et al. (1995) SCA1 transgenic mice: a model for neurodegeneration caused by an expanded CAG trinucleotide repeat. Cell 82, 937–948.
Huynh, D. P., Figueroa, K., Hoang, N., et al. (2000) Nuclear localization or inclusion body formation of ataxin-2 are not necessary for SCA2 pathogenesis in mouse or human. Nature Genet. 26, 44–50.
Cemal, C. K., Carroll, C. J., Lawrence, L., et al. (2002) YAC transgenic mice carrying pathological alleles of the MJD1 locus exhibit a mild and slowly progressive cerebellar deficit. Hum. Mol. Genet. 11, 1075–1094.
Yvert, G., Lindenberg, K. S., Picaud, S., et al. (2000) Expanded polyglutamines induce neurodegeneration and trans-neuronal alterations in cerebellum and retina of SCA7 transgenic mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 2491–2506.
Yvert, G., Lindenberg, K. S., Devys, D., et al. (2001) SCA7 mouse models show selective stabilization of mutant ataxin-7 and similar cellular responses in different neuronal cell types. Hum. Mol. Genet. 10, 1679–1692.
La Spada, A. R., Fu, Y., Sopher, B. L., et al. (2001) Polyglutamine-expanded ataxin-7 antagonizes crx function and induces cone-rod dystrophy in a mouse model of sca7. Neuron 31, 913–927.
Watase, K., Weeber, E. J., Xu, B., et al. (2002) A long CAG repeat in the mouse Sca1 locus replicates SCA1 features and reveals the impact of protein solubility on selective neurodegeneration. Neuron 34, 905–919.
Yoo, S. Y., Pennesi, M. E., Weeber, E. J., et al. (2003) SCA7 knockin mice model human SCA7 and reveal gradual accumulation of mutant ataxin-7 in neurons and abnormalities in short-term plasticity. Neuron 37, 383–401.
Schilling, G., Wood, J. D., Duan, K., et al. (1999) Nuclear accumulation of truncated atrophin-1 fragments in a transgenic mouse model of DRPLA. Neuron 24, 275–286.
Sato, T., Oyake, M., Nakamura, K., et al. (1999) Transgenic mice harboring a full-length human mutant DRPLA gene exhibit age-dependent intergenerational and somatic instabilities of CAG repeats comparable with those in DRPLA patients. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8, 99–106.
Abel, A., Walcott, J., Woods, J., et al. (2001) Expression of expanded repeat androgen receptor produces neurologic disease in transgenic mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 10, 107–116.
Adachi, H., Kume, A., Li, M., et al. (2001) Transgenic mice with an expanded CAG repeat controlled by the human AR promoter show polyglutamine nuclear inclusions and neuronal dysfunction without neuronal cell death. Hum. Mol. Genet. 10, 1039–1048.
Katsuno, M., Adachi, H., Kume, A., et al. (2002) Testosterone reduction prevents phenotypic expression in a transgenic mouse model of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Neuron 35, 843–854.
McManamny, P., Chy, H. S., Finkelstein, D. I., et al. (2002) A mouse model of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Hum. Mol. Genet. 11, 2103–2111.
Davies, S. W., Turmaine, M., Cozens, B. A., et al. (1997) Formation of neuronal intranuclear inclusions underlies the neurological dysfunction in mice transgenic for the HD mutation. Cell 90, 537–548.
Li, H., Li, S. H., Cheng, A. L., et al. (1999) Ultrastructural localization and progressive formation of neuropil aggregates in Huntington’s disease transgenic mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8, 1227–1236.
Skinner, P. J., Koshy, B. T., Cummings, C. J., et al. (1997) Ataxin-1 with an expanded glutamine tract alters nuclear matrix-associated structures. Nature 389, 971–974.
DiFiglia, M., Sapp, E., Chase, K. O., et al. (1997) Aggregation of Huntington in neuronal intranuclear inclusions and dystrophic neurites in brain. Science 277, 1990–1993.
Gutekunst, C. A., Li, S. H., Yi, H., et al. (1999) Nuclear and neuropil aggregates in Huntington’s disease: relationship to neuropathology. J. Neurosci. 19, 2522–2534.
Schilling, G., Jinnah, H. A., Gonzales, V., et al. (2001) Distinct behavioral and neuropathological abnormalities in transgenic mouse models of HD and DRPLA. Neurobiol. Dis. 8, 405–418.
Cummings, C. J., Sun, Y., Opal, P., et al. (2001) Over-expression of inducible HSP70 chaperone suppresses neuropathology and improves motor function in SCA1 mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 10, 1511–1518.
Adachi, H., Katsuno, M., Minamiyama, M., et al. (2003) Heat shock protein 70 chaperone overexpression ameliorates phenotypes of the spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy transgenic mouse model by reducing nuclear-localized mutant androgen receptor protein. J. Neurosci. 23, 2203–2211.
Cha, J. H., Kosinski, C. M., Kerner, J. A., et al. (1998) Altered brain neurotransmitter receptors in transgenic mice expressing a portion of an abnormal human huntington disease gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 6480–6485.
Luthi-Carter, R., Strand, A., Peters, N. L., et al. (2000) Decreased expression of striatal signaling genes in a mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 1259–1271.
Lin, X., Antalffy, B., Kang, D., et al. (2000) Polyglutamine expansion down-regulates specific neuronal genes before pathologic changes in SCA1. Nature Neurosci. 3, 157–163.
Ferrante, R. J., Andreassen, O. A., Jenkins, B. G., et al. (2000) Neuroprotective effects of creatine in a transgenic mouse model of Huntington’s disease. J. Neurosci. 20, 4389–4397.
Andreassen, O. A., Dedeoglu, A., Ferrante, R. J., et al. (2001) Creatine increase survival and delays motor symptoms in a transgenic animal model of Huntington’s disease. Neurobiol. Dis. 8, 479–491.
Ferrante, R. J., Andreassen, O. A., Dedeoglu, A., et al. (2002) Therapeutic effects of coenzyme Q10 and remacemide in transgenic mouse models of Huntington’s disease. J. Neurosci. 22, 1592–1599.
Schilling, G., Coonfield, M. L., Ross, C. A., et al. (2001) Coenzyme Q10 and remacemide hydrochloride ameliorate motor deficits in a Huntington’s disease transgenic mouse model. Neurosci. Lett. 315, 149–153.
Schiefer, J., Landwehrmeyer, G. B., Luesse, H. G., et al. (2002) Riluzole prolongs survival time and alters nuclear inclusion formation in a transgenic mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Mov. Disord. 17, 748–757.
Andreassen, O. A., Ferrante, R. J., Dedeoglu, A., et al. (2001) Lipoic acid improves survival in transgenic mouse models of Huntington’s disease. Neuroreport 12, 3371–3373.
Clifford, J. J., Drago, J., Natoli, A. L., et al. (2002) Essential fatty acids given from conception prevent topographies of motor deficit in a transgenic model of Huntington’s disease. Neuroscience 109, 81–88.
Karpuj, M. V., Becher, M. W., Springer, J. E., et al. (2002) Prolonged survival and decreased abnormal movements in transgenic model of Huntington disease, with administration of the transglutaminase inhibitor cystamine. Nature Med. 8, 143–149.
Dedeoglu, A., Kubilus, J. K., Jeitner, T. M., et al. (2002) Therapeutic effects of cystamine in a murine model of Huntington’s disease. J. Neurosci. 22, 8942–8950.
Sanchez, I., Mahlke, C., and Yuan, J. (2003) Pivotal role of oligomerization in expanded polyglutamine neurodegenerative disorders. Nature 421, 373–379.
Hockly, E., Richon, V. M., Woodman, B., et al. (2003) Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, ameliorates motor deficits in a mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 2041–2046.
Chen, M., Ona, V. O., Li, M., et al. (2000) Minocycline inhibits caspase-1 and caspase-3 expression and delays mortality in a transgenic mouse model of Huntington disease. Nature Med. 6, 797–801.
Smith, D. L., Woodman, B., Mahal, A., et al. (2003) Minocycline and doxycylcine do not improve phenotype in the R6/2 model of HD. Ann. Neurol., 54, 186–196.
Heiser, V., Engemann, S., Brocker, W., et al. (2002) Identification of benzothiazoles as potential polyglutamine aggregation inhibitors of Huntington’s disease by using an automated filter retardation assay. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99(Suppl. 4), 16,400–16,406.
Katsuno, M., Adachi, H., Doyu, M., et al. (2003) Leuprorelin rescues polyglutamine-dependent phenotypes in a transgenic mouse model of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Nature Med. 9, 768–773.
Yamamoto, A., Lucas, J. J., and Hen, R. (2000) Reversal of neuropathology and motor dysfunction in a conditional model of Huntington’s disease. Cell 101, 57–66.
Peier, A. M. and Nelson, D. L. (2002) Instability of a premutation-sized CGG repeat in FMR1 YAC transgenic mice. Genomics 80, 423–432.
Mangiarini, L., Sathasivam, K., Mahal, A., et al. (1997) Instability of highly expanded CAG repeats in mice transgenic for the Huntington’s disease mutation. Nature Genet. 15, 197–200.
Wheeler, V. C., Auerbach, W., White, J. K., et al. (1999) Length-dependent gametic CAG repeat instability in the Huntington’s disease knock-in mouse. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8, 115–122.
Kaytor, M. D., Burright, E. N., Duvick, L. A., et al. (1997) Increased trinucleotide repeat instability with advanced maternal age. Hum. Mol. Genet. 6, 2135–2139.
Lorenzetti, D., Watase, K., Xu, B., et al. (2000) Repeat instability and motor incoordination in mice with a targeted expanded CAG repeat in the Sca1 locus. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 779–785.
Kennedy, L. and Shelbourne, P. F. (2000) Dramatic mutation instability in HD mouse striatum: does polyglutamine load contribute to cell-specific vulnerability in Huntington’s disease? Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 2539–2544.
Telenius, H., Kremer, B., Goldberg, Y. P., et al. (1994) Somatic and gonadal mosaicism of the Huntington disease gene CAG repeat in brain and sperm. Nature Genet. 6, 409–414.
Monckton, D. G., Coolbaugh, M. I., Ashizawa, K. T., et al. (1997) Hypermutable myotonic dystrophy CTG repeats in transgenic mice. Nature Genet. 15, 193–196.
Seznec, H., Lia-Baldini, A. S., Duros, C., et al. (2000) Transgenic mice carrying large human genomic sequences with expanded CTG repeat mimic closely the DM CTG repeat intergenerational and somatic instability. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 1185–1194.
Fortune, M. T., Vassilopoulos, C., Coolbaugh, M. I., et al. (2000) Dramatic, expansionbiased, age-dependent, tissue-specific somatic mosaicism in a transgenic mouse model of triplet repeat instability. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 439–445.
Pearson, C. E., Ewel, A., Acharya, S., et al. (1997) Human MSH2 binds to trinucleotide repeat DNA structures associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Hum. Mol. Genet. 6, 1117–1123.
Manley, K., Shirley, T. L., Flaherty, L., et al (1999) Msh2 deficiency prevents in vivo somatic instability of the CAG repeat in Huntington disease transgenic mice. Nature Genet. 23, 471–473.
Wheeler, V. C., Lebel, L. A., Vrbanac, V., et al. (2003) Mismatch repair gene Msh2 modifies the timing of early disease in Hdh(Q111) striatum. Hum. Mol. Genet. 12, 273–281.
van den Broek, W. J., Nelen, M. R., Wansink, D. G., et al. (2002) Somatic expansion behaviour of the (CTG)n repeat in myotonic dystrophy knock-in mice is differentially affected by Msh3 and Msh6 mismatch-repair proteins. Hum. Mol. Genet. 11, 191–198.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Humana Press Inc.
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Bates, G.P., Hay, D.G. (2004). Mouse Models of Triplet Repeat Diseases. In: Kohwi, Y. (eds) Trinucleotide Repeat Protocols. Methods in Molecular Biology™, vol 277. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-804-8:003
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-804-8:003
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-243-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-804-5
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols