Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Animal Models of Neurological Disease, II pp 51–93Cite as

Animal Models of Brain Hypoxia

  • Protocol

Part of the book series: Neuromethods ((NM,volume 22))

Abstract

Hypoxia (i.e., reduced oxygen availability) is a classical model of the metabolic encephalopathies or delirium. An understanding of how hypoxia alters brain function has implications for understanding other metabolic encephalopathies as well as aging and age-related disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Utilizing a variety of models of hypoxia is necessary to determine the effects of hypoxia on brain function and to test hypotheses about the underlying mechanisms of its actions. Both in vivo and in vitro models of hypoxia are produced by either limiting the oxygen availability or impairing the tissues′ ability to utilize oxygen. The results demonstrate that the synthesis and release of neurotransmitters are particularly sensitive to hypoxia. The release of acetylcholine is diminished, whereas the release of dopamine and glutamate is accelerated. We postulate that diminished acetylcholine release impairs mental function, whereas the excessive release of dopamine and glutamate damages cells postsynaptically. Fundamental alterations in calcium homeostasis, particularly the ability of mitochondria to buffer calcium, appear to underlie these deficits. Furthermore, these changes in calcium appear to affect other second messenger systems, including an acceleration of the phosphatidylinositol cascade

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Protocol
USD   49.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Springer Nature is developing a new tool to find and evaluate Protocols. Learn more

References

  • Bachelard H. S., Lewis L. D., Ponten U., and Siesjo B. K. (1974) Mechanisms activating glycolysis in the brain in arterial hypoxia. J. Neurochem. 22, 395–401.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barclay L. L, Gibson G. E., and Blass J. P. (1981) Impairment of behavior and acetylcholine metabolism in thiamine deficiency. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 217, 537–543.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berkson H. (1966) Physiological adjustments to prolonged diving in the pacific green turtle (Chelonia agassizii). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 18, 101–119.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boismare F., LePoncin M., Belliard J. P., and Hacpille L. (1975) Reduction of hypoxia induced disturbances by previous treatment with benserazide and L-Dopa in rats. Experientia 31, 1190–1192.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boismare F., LePoncin-Lafitte M., and Rapin J. R. (1979a) Blockade of the different enzymatic steps in the synthesis of brain amines and memory (CAR) in hypobaric hypoxic rats treated or not with L-DOPA, in,: Cat-echolamines: Basic and Clinical Frontiers (Usdin E., Kopin I. J., and Barchas J., eds.). Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 1726–1728.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boismare F., Saligaut G, Moore N., and LeClerc J. L (1979b) Avoidance learning and mechanisms of protective effect of apomorphine under hypoxia. Acta Neurol. Scand. 60, 160,161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Booth R. F. G. and Clark J. B. (1978) A rapid method for the preparation of relatively pure metabolically competent synaptosomes from rat brain. Biochem. J. 176, 365–370.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Booth R. F. G., Harvey S. A. K., and Clark J. B. (1983) Effects of in vivo hypoxia on acetylcholine synthesis by rat brain synaptosomes. J. Neurochem. 40, 106–110.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Broderick P. A. and Gibson G. E. (1989) Dopamine and serotonin in rat striatum during in vivo hypoxic-hypoxia. Metab. Brain Dis. 4, 143–153.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown R. M., Davis J. N., and Carlsson A. (1973) Dopa reversal of hypoxic-induced disruption of the conditioned avoidance response. J. Pharm Pharmacol. 25, 412–414.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown R. M., Davis J. N., and Carlsson A. (1974) Changes in biogenic amine synthesis and turnover induced by hypoxia and/or foot shock stress II. The central nervous system. J. Neural. Transm. 35, 293–305.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown R. M., Kehr W., and Carlsson A. (1975) Functional and biochemical aspects of catecholamine metabolism in brain under hypoxia. Brain Res. 85, 491–509.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll J. M., Toral-Barza L., Joh T., and Gibson G. E. (1990) The effects of glucose and oxygen deprivation on the responses of c-fos and cytosolic free calcium to K+-stimulation in PC-12 cells. J. Cell Biol. 115, 307a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chih C. P., Feng Z. C., Rosenthal M., Lutz P. L., and Sick T. J. (1989) Energy metabolism, ion homeostasis, and evoked potentials in anoxic turtle brain. Am. J. Physiol. 257, R854–R860.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi D. W. (1990) Cerebral hypoxia-some new approaches and unanswered questions. J. Neurosci. 10, 2493–2501.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dagani F., Feletti F., and Canevari L. (1989) Effects of diltiazem on bioenergetics, K+ gradients, and free cytosolic Ca-2+ levels in rat brain synaptosomes. J. Neurochem. 53, 1379–1389.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis J. N. and Carlsson A. (1973) Effect of hypoxia on tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylation in unanesthetized rat brain. J. Neurochem. 20, 913–915.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deshmuhk D. R., Owen O E, and Patel M. S. (1980) Effect of aging on the metabolism of pyruvate and 3-hydroxybutyrate in nonsynaptic and synaptic mitochondria from rat brain. J. Neurochem. 34, 1219–1224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dienel G., Ryder E., and Greengard O. (1977). Distribution of mitochon-drial enzymes between the perikaryal and synaptic fractions of immature and adult rat brain. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 496, 484–494.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge P. W. and Takemori A. E. (1972) Effects of morphine, nalorphine and pentobarbital alone and in combinations on cerebral glycolytic substrates and cofactors of rat in vivo. Biochem. Pharmacol. 21, 287–294.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duan J. M. and Karmazyn M. (1989) Acute effects of hypoxia and phosphate on two populations of heart mitochondria. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 90, 47–56

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy T. E., Kohle S. J., and Vannucci R. (1975) Carbohydrate and energy metabolism in perinatal rat brain: Relation to survival in anoxia. J. Neurochem. 24, 271–276.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy T. E., Nelson S. R, and Lowry O. H. (1972) Cerebral carbohydrate metabolism during acute hypoxia and recovery. J. Neurochem. 19, 959–977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunkley P. R., Rostas J. A. P., Heath J. W., and Powis D. A. (1987) In vitro methods for studying secretion, in The Secretory Process, vol. 3 (Poisner A. and Trifaro J. M., eds.) Elsevier, New York, pp. 315–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eyer P., Kiese M., Lipowsky G., and Weger N. (1974) Reactions of 4-dimethylaminophenol with hemoglobin, and autoxidation of 4-dimethylaminophenol. Chem. Biol. Interact. 8, 41–59.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman G. B. and Gibson G. E. (1984) Stress indices in blood in animals restrained for focussed microwave radiation. Fed. Proc. 43, 772.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman G. B. and Gibson G. E. (1986) Effect of decreased oxygen on in vitro release of endogenous 3,4-dihydroxphenylethylamine from mouse striatum. J. Neurochem. 47, 1924–1931.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman G. B., Mykytyn V., and Gibson G. E. (1987) Differential alteration of dopamine, acetylcholine and glutamate release during anoxia and/ or 3,4-diaminopyridine treatment. Neurochem. Res. 12, 1019–1027.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman G. B., Nielsen P., and Gibson G. E. (1986a) Monoamine neurotransmitter metabolism and locomotor activity during chemical hypoxia. J. Neurochem. 46, 733–738.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman G. B., Nielsen P., and Gibson G. E. (1986b) Behavioral and neuro-chemical interactions of morphine and hypoxia. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 24, 1687–1693.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fujii T., Hayashi M., Toita K, and Yamasaki Y. (1990) Effects of coenzymes Q2 and Q10 on the field potential of guinea pig olfactory cortex slices maintained in hypoxia. Neurosci. Lett. 110, 40–45.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. (1985) Hypoxia, in, Cerebral Energy Metabolism and Metabolic Encephalopathy. (McCandless D. W., ed.), Plenum, New York, pp. 43–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Barclay L. L., and Blass J. P. (1982) The role of the cholinergic system in thiamin deficiency in, Thiamin: Twenty Years of Progress (Sable H. Z. and Gubler C. J., eds.), Ann. NY Acad. Sci 378, 382–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Blass J. P. (1976a) Impaired synthesis of acetylcholine in brain accompanying hypoglycemia and mild hypoxia. J. Neurochem. 27, 37–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Blass J. P. (1976b) Inhibition of acetylcholine synthesis and carbohydrate utilization by Maple-Syrup-Urine Disease metabolites. J. Neurochem 26, 1073–1078.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Blass J. P. (1976c) A relation between [NAD+]/[NADH] potential and glucose utilization in rat brain slices. J. Biol. Chem. 25, 4127–4130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Duffy T. E. (1981) Impaired synthesis of acetylcholine by mild hypoxic hypoxia or nitrous oxide. J. Neurochem. 36, 28–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Freeman G. B., Broderick P., and Nielsen P. (1987) Possible calcium-mediated events in selective vulnerability. Proc. XIII Int. Symposium on Cereb. Blood Flow and Metabolism 7S, 155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Freeman G. B., and Mykytyn V. (1988) Selective damage in striatum and hippocampus with in vitro anoxia. Neurochem. Res. 13, 329–335.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Jope R., and Blass J. P. (1975) Decreased synthesis of acetylcholine accompanying impaired oxidation of pyruvic acid in rat brain minces. Biochem. J. 148, 17–23.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Manger T., Toral-Barza L., and Freeman G. (1989) Cytosolic free calcium and neurotransmitter release with decreased availability of glucose or oxygen. Neurochem. Res. 14, 437–443.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Mykytyn V. (1988) An in vitro model of anoxic-induced damage in mouse brain. Neurochem. Res. 13, 9–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Nielsen P., Mykytyn V., Carlson K., and Blass J. P. (1989) Regionally selective alterations in enzymatic activities and metabolic fluxes during thiamin deficiency. Neurochem. Res. 14, 17–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Pelmas C. J., and Peterson C. (1983) Cholinergic drugs and 4-aminopyridine alter hypoxic-induced behavioral deficits. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 18, 909–916.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Peterson C. (1983) Acetylcholine metabolism in septum and hippocampus in vitro. J. Biol. Chem. 258, 1142–1145.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Peterson C. (1987) Calcium and the aging nervous system. Neurobiol. Aging 8, 329–343.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Peterson C. (1982) Decreases in the release of acetylcholine in vitro with low oxygen. Biochem. Pharmacol. 31, 111–115.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E. and Peterson C. (1984) Pharmacological approaches to age-related deficits in oxidative metabolism. Assessment in Geriatric Psy-chopharmacology, (Crook T., Ferris S., and Bartus R., eds.), Mark Powley Assoc. Inc., New Canaan, CT, pp. 323–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Peterson G, and Sansone, J. (1981a) Decreases in amino acid and acetylcholine metabolism during hypoxia. J. Neurochem. 37, 192–201.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Peterson C., and Sansone J. (1981b) Neurotransmitter and carbohydrate metabolism during aging and mild hypoxia. Neurobiol Aging 2, 165–172.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Shimada M., and Blass, J. P. (1978) Alterations in acetylcholine synthesis and in cyclic-GMP in mild cerebral hypoxia. J. Neurochem. 31, 757–760.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Shimada M., and Blass J. P. (1979) Protection by Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane against behavioral and neuro-chemical effects of hypoxia. Biochem. Pharmacol. 28, 167–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Toral-Barza L., and Huang H.-M. (1991) Cytosolic free calcium in synaptosomes during hypoxia. Neurochem. Res. 16, 461–467.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson G. E., Toral-Barza L., Manger T., and Freeman G. (1988) Neurotrans-mitters and calcium during hypoxia, in, Cerebral Ischemia and Calcium (Hartman A. and Kuschinsky W., eds.), Springer-Verlag, New York pp. 215–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass H. G., Snyder, F. F., and Webster, R. (1944) The rate of decline in resistance to anoxia of rabbits, dogs and guinea pigs from the onset of viability to adult life. Am. J. Physiol. 140, 609–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths T., Evans M. C., and Meldrum B. S. (1983) Intracellular calcium accumulation in rat hippocampus during seizures induced by bicuculline or L-allylglycine. Neurosci. 10, 385–389.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gurdjian E. S., Stone W. E., and Webster J. E. (1944) Cerebral metabolism in hypoxia. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatr. 51, 472–477.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haldane J. S., Kellas A. M., and Kennaway, E. L. (1919) Experiments on acclimatization to reduced atmospheric pressure. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 53, 181.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen A. J. (1985) Effect of anoxia on ion distribution in the brain. Physiol. Rev. 65, 101–148.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch J. A. and Gibson G. E. (1984a) Selective alteration of neurotransmitter release by low oxygen in vitro. Neurochem. Res. 9, 1039–1049.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch J. A. and Gibson G. E. (1984b) Thiamine antagonists and the release of acetylcholine and norepinephrine from brain slices. Biochem. Pharmacol. 33, 2325–2327.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang H.-M. and Gibson G. E. (1989a) Phosphahdylinositol metabolism during in vitro hypoxia. J. Neurochem. 52, 830–835.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang H.-M. and Gibson G. E. (1989b) Effects of in vitro hypoxia on depolarization-stimulated accumulation of inositol phosphates in synaptosomes. Life Sci. 45, 1443–1449.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kass I. S. and Lipton P. (1982) Mechanisms involved in irreversible anoxic damage to the in vitro rat hippocampal slice. J. Physiol. 332, 459–472.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kauppinen R. A. and Nicholls D. G. (1986) Failure to maintain glycolysis in anoxic nerve terminals. J. Neurochem. 47, 1864–1869.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kawasaki K., Traynelis S. F., and Dingledine R. (1990) Different responses to CA1 and CA3 regions to hypoxia in rat hippocampal slice. J. Neurophysiol. 63, 385–394.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ksiezak H. and Gibson G. E. (1981a) Oxygen dependence on glucose and acetylcholine metabolism in slices and synaptosomes from rat brain. J. Neurochem. 37, 305–324.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ksiezak H. J. and Gibson G. E. (1981b) Acetylcholine synthesis and CO2 production from variously labelled glucose in rat brain slices and synaptosomes. J. Neurochem. 37, 88–94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leahy T. and Smith R. (1960) Notes on methemoglobin determination. Clin. Chem. 6, 148–152.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lipowski Z. J. (1980) Delirium. Charles C. Thomas, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipowski Z. J. (1989) Delirium in the elderly patient. N. Engl. J. Med. 320, 578–582.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lipowski Z. J. (1987) Delirium (Acute Confusional States). J. Am. Med. Assoc. 258, 1789–1792.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowry O. H. and Passonneau J. V. (1972) A Flexible System of Enzymatic Analysis, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutz B. R. and Schneider E. C. (1919) Alveolar air and respiratory volume at low oxygen tensions. Am. J. Physiol. 50, 280.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz P. L., Rosenthal M., and Sick T. J. (1985) Living without oxygen: Turtle brain as a model of anaerobic metabolism. Mol. Physiol. 8, 411–425.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan V. (1975a) The effects of acute carbon monoxide intoxication on the cerebral energy metabolism of the rat. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 53, 354–362.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan V. (1975b) Regional cerebral blood flow of the rat in acute carbon monoxide intoxication. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 53, 644–650.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McFarland R. A. (1953) Stimuli primarily related to high altitude flight, in Human Factors in Our Transportation, McGraw-Hill, NY pp. 153–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarland R. A. and Evans J. N. (1939) Alterations in dark adaptation under reduced oxygen tensions. Am. J. Physiol. 7, 37.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarland R. A. and Forbes W. H. (1940) The effects of variation in the concentration of oxygen and of glucose on dark adaptation. J. Gen. Physiol. 24, 69.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McFarland R. A., Roughton F. J. W., and Halperin M. H. (1944) The effects of CO2 and altitude on visual thresholds. J. Aviation Med. 15, 381–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIlwain H. and Bachelard H. S. (1971) Biochemisty and the Central Nervous System, 4th ed., Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh and London.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIlwain H. and Bachelard H. S. (1985) Biochemisty and the Central Nervous System. 5th ed., Churchill Livingstone, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller A. L., Hawkins R. A., Harris R. L., and Veech R. L. (1972) The effects of acute and chronic morphine treatment and of morphine withdrawal on rat brain in vivo. J. Biochem. 129, 463–469.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Myers R. E. (1979) A unitary theory of causation of anoxic and hypoxic brain pathology. Adv Neurol. 26, 195–213.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen P. E. and Gibson G. E. (1986) Mitochondrial and plasma membrane potentials during anoxia and normoxia. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 12, 1403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nishida T., Inoue T., Kamiike W., Kawashima Y., and Tagawa K. (1989) Involvement of Ca2+ release and activation of phospholipase-A2 in mitochondrial dysfunction during anoxia. J. Biochem. 106, 533–538.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons D. W. and Macmillan D. L (1990) The effect of carbon monoxide on the function of a crustacean sensory receptor is no different to the effect of hypoxia. Res Comm. Chem Path. Pharmacol. 67, 229–240.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson C. and Gibson G. E. (1982) 3,4-Diaminopyridine alters acetylcholine metabolism and behavior during hypoxia. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 222, 576–582.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson C. and Gibson G. E. (1984) Synaptosomal calcium metabolism during hypoxia and 3,4-diaminopyridine treatment. J. Neurochem. 42, 248–253.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson C., Gibson G. E., and Blass J. P. (1985a) Altered calcium uptake in cultured skin fibroblasts from patients with Alzheimer’s disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 312, 1063,1064.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson C., Nicholls D. G., and Gibson G. E. (1985b) Subsynaptosomal calcium distribution during hypoxia and 3,4-diaminopyridine treatment. J. Neurochem. 45, 1779–1790.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plum F. (1975) The metabolic encephalopathies. The Nervous System. Clin. Neurosci. 2, 193–201.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plum F. and Posner J. B. (1980) The Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma, 3rd Ed., F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ponten U., Ratcheson R. A., Salford L. G. and Siesjo B. K (1973) Optimal freezing conditions for cerebral metabolites in rats. J. Neurochem. 21, 1127–1138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rising C. L. and D′Alecy L. G. (1989) Hypoxia-induced increases in hypoxic tolerance augmented by beta-hydroxybutyrate in mice. Stroke 20, 1219–1225.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman S. M. (1983) Synaptic activity mediates death of hypoxic neurons. Science 220, 536,537.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saligaut C., Moore N., Boulu R., Plotkine M., LeClerc J. L., Prioux-Guyonneau M., and Boismare F. (1981) Hypobaric hypoxia: Central catecholamine levels and cortical PO2, and avoidance response in rats treated with apomorphine. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 52, 166–170.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saligaut C., Moore N., Chretien P., Daoust M., Richard O., and Boismare, F. (1982). Interference between central dopaminergic stimulation and adrenal secretion in normoxic, hypobaric and hypoxic rats. Stroke 6, 859–864.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimada K, Kihara T., Kurimoto K., and Watanaabe M. (1974). Incorporation of 14C from [U-14C]glucose into free amino acids in mouse brain regions under cyanide intoxication. J. Neurochem 23, 379–384.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siesjo B. K. (1981) Cell damage in the brain: a speculative synthesis. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1, 155–185.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siesjo B. K. and Nilsson L. (1971) The influence of arterial hypoxemia upon labile phosphates and upon extracellular and intracellular lactate and pyruvate concentrations in the rat brain. Scand. J. Clin Lab. Invest. 27, 83–96

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simon R. P., Griffiths R., Evans M. C., Swan J. J., and Meldrum B. S. (1984) Calcium overload in selectively vulnerable neurons of hippocampus during and after ischemia: An electron microscopy study in the rat. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 4, 350–361.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sims N. R. and Blass J. P. (1985) Expression of classical mitochondrial respiratory responses in homogenates of rat forebrain. J. Neurochem. 47, 496–505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith P. G., Slotkin T. A., and Mills, E. (1982) Development of sympathetic ganglionic neurotransmission in the neonatal rat. Pre-and postgangli-onic nerve response to asphyxia and 2-deoxyglucose. Neuroscience 7, 501–507.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stavinoha W. B., Weintraub S. T., and Modak A. T. (1973) The use of microwave heating to inactivate cholinesterase in the rat brain prior to analysis for acetylcholine. J. Neurochem. 20, 361–371.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sylvia A. L., Seidler F. J., and Slotkin T. A. (1989) Effect of transient hypoxia on oxygenation of the developing rat brain-Relationships among haemoglobin saturation, autoregulation of blood flow and mitochon-drial redox state. J Develop Physiol. 12, 287–292.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thom S. R. (1990) Carbon monoxide-mediated brain lipid peroxidation in the rat. J. Appl. Physiol. 68, 997–1003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Reempts J., Haseldonckx M., Van de Ven M., and Borgers M. (1984) Morphology and ultrastructural calcium distribution in the rat hippocampus after severe transient ischemia, in Cerebral Ischemia, (Bes A., Braquet P., Paoletti R., and Siesjo, eds.), Elsevier, NY, pp. 113–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veech R. L, Harris R. L, Veloso D., and Veech E. H. (1973) Freeze-blowing: A new technique for the study of brain in vivo. J. Neurochem. 20, 183–188.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vicario C., Juanes M. C., Martinbarrientos J., and Medina J. M. (1990) Effect of postnatal hypoxia on ammonia metabolism during the early neonatal period in the rat. Biol. Neonate 57, 119–125.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walz W. and Harold D. E. (1990) Brain lactic acidosis and synaptic function. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 68, 164–169.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson D. F., Erecinska M., Drown C., and Silver I. (1979) The oxygen dependence of cellular energy metabolism. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 195, 485–493.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zeman E. M., Pearson C. I., and Brown J. M. (1990) Induction of hypoxia in glass versus permanox petri dishes. Radiation Res. 122, 72–76.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cornell University Medical College, White Plains, NY

    Gary E. Gibson & Hsueh-Meei Huang

Authors
  1. Gary E. Gibson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hsueh-Meei Huang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada

    Alan A. Boulton

  2. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

    Glen B. Baker

  3. University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada

    Roger F. Butterworth

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1992 The Humana Press Inc

About this protocol

Cite this protocol

Gibson, G.E., Huang, HM. (1992). Animal Models of Brain Hypoxia. In: Boulton, A.A., Baker, G.B., Butterworth, R.F. (eds) Animal Models of Neurological Disease, II. Neuromethods, vol 22. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/0-89603-211-6:51

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/0-89603-211-6:51

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-89603-211-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-627-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Protocols

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation