Abstract
All-atom, classical force fields for protein molecular dynamics (MD) simulations currently occupy a sweet spot in the universe of computational models, sufficiently detailed to be of predictive value in many cases, yet also simple enough that some biologically relevant time scales (microseconds or more) can now be sampled via specialized hardware or enhanced sampling methods. However, due to their long evolutionary history, there is now a myriad of force field branches in current use, which can make it hard for those entering the simulation field to know which would be the best set of parameters for a given application. In this chapter, I try to give an overview of the historical motivation for the different force fields available, suggestions for how to determine the most appropriate model and what to do if the results are in conflict with experimental evidence.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Karplus M, McCammon JA (2002) Molecular dynamics simulations of biomolecules. Nat Struct Biol 9(9):646–652
Moore GE (1965) Cramming more components into integrated circuits. Electronics 38(8):114–117
Friedrichs MS, Eastman P, Vaiyanathan V, Houston M, Legrand S, Beberg AL, Ensign DL, Bruns CM, Pande VS (2009) Accelerating molecular dynamics simulations on graphics processing units. J Comput Chem 30(6):864–872
Shaw DE, Deneroff MM, Dror RO, Kuskin JS, Larson RH, Salmon JK, Young C, Batson B, Bowers KJ, Chao JC, Eastwood MP, Gagliardo J, Grossman JP, Ho CR, Ierardi DJ, Kolossvary I, Klepeis JL, Layman T, McLeavey C, Moraes MA, Mueller R, Priest EC, Shan YB, Spengler J, Theobald M, Towles B, Wang SC (2007) Anton, a special-purpose machine for molecular dynamics simulation. In: Isca’07: 34th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture, Conference Proceedings. Conference Proceedings - Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture. Assoc Computing Machinery, New York, NY, pp 1–12
Zuckerman DM (2011) Equilibrium sampling in biomolecular simulations. Annu Rev Biophys 40:41–62
Valsson O, Tiwary P, Parrinello M (2016) Enhancing important fluctuations: rare events and metadynamics from a conceptual viewpoint. Annu Rev Phys Chem 67:159–184
Lindorff-Larsen K, Piana S, Dror RO, Shaw DE (2011) How fast-folding proteins fold. Science 334:517–520
Noskov SY, Berneche S, Roux B (2004) Control of ion selectivity in potassium channels by electrostatic and dynamic properties of carbonyl ligands. Nature 431:830–834
Lifson S (1968) Consistent force field for calculations of conformations, vibrational spectra and enthalpies of cycloalkane and n-alkane molecules. J Chem Phys 49(11):5116
Gelin BR, Karplus M (1975) Sidechain torsional potentials and motion of amino acids in proteins: bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 72:2002
Tirado-Rives J, Jorgensen WL (1988) The OPLS [Optimized Potentials for Liquid Simulations] potential functions for proteins, energy minimizations for crystals of cyclic peptides and crambin. J Am Chem Soc 110(6):1657–1666
Bayly CI, Cieplak P, Cornell W, Kollman PA (1993) A well-behaved electrostatic potential based method using charge restraints for deriving atomic charges: the RESP model. J Phys Chem 97:10269–10280
MacKerell AD Jr, Bashford D, Bellot M, Dunbrack JRL, Evanseck JD, Field MJ, Fischer S, Gao J, Guo H, Ha S, Joseph-McCarthy D, Kuchnir L, Kuczera K, Lau FTK, Mattos C, Michnick S, Ngo T, Nguyen DT, Prodhom B, Reiher WE, III RB, Schlenkrich M, Smith JC, Stote R, Straub J, Watanabe M, Kuczera J, Yin D, Karplus M (2000) All-atom empirical potential for molecular modeling and dynamics studies of proteins. J Phys Chem B 102(18):3586–3616
MacKerell AD Jr, Feig M, Brooks CL (2004) Improved treatment of the protein backbone in empirical force fields. J Am Chem Soc 126:698–699
MacKerell AD Jr, Feig M, Brooks CL (2004) Extending the treatment of backbone energetics in protein force fields: limitations of gas-phase quantum mechanics in reproducing protein conformational distributions in molecular dynamics simulations. J Comput Chem 25:1400–1415
Best RB, Zhu X, Shim J, Lopes P, Mittal J, Feig M, MacKerell AD Jr (2012) Optimization of the additive CHARMM all-atom protein force field targeting improved sampling of the backbone φ, ψ and side-chain χ1 and χ2 dihedral angles. J Chem Theor Comput 8:3257–3273
Huang J, Rauscher S, Nawrocki G, Rang T, Feig M, De Groot BL, Grubmüller H, Mackerell AD (2016) CHARMM36m: an improved force field for folded and intrinsically disordered proteins. Nat Methods 14:71–73
Cornell WD, Cieplak P, Bayly CI, Kollman PA (1993) Application of RESP charges to calculate conformational energies, hydrogen bond energies, and free energies of solvation. J Am Chem Soc 115:9620–9631
Cerutti DS, Swope WC, Rice JE, Case DA (2014) ff14ipq: a self-consistent force field for condensed-phase simulations of proteins. J Chem Theor Comput 10:4515–4534
Kollman PA (1996) Advances and continuing challenges in achieving realistic and predictive simulations of the properties of organic and biological molecules. Acc Chem Res 29(10):461–469
Wang J, Cieplak P, Kollman PA (2000) How well does a restrained electrostatic potential (RESP) model perform in calculating conformational energies of organic and biological molecules? J Comput Chem 21(12):1049–1074
Hornak V, Abel R, Okur A, Strockbine B, Roitberg A, Simmerling C (2006) Comparison of multiple AMBER force-fields and development of improved protein backbone parameters. Proteins 65:712–725
Maier JA, Martinez C, Kasavajhala K, Wickstrom L, Hauser KE, Simmerling C (2015) ff14SB: improving the accuracy of protein side chain and backbone parameters from ff99SB. J Chem Theor Comput 11:3696–3713
Oostenbrink C, Villa A, Mark AE, van Gunsteren WF (2004) A biomolecular force field based on the free enthalpy of hydration and solvation: the GROMOS force-field parameter sets 53A5 and 53A6. J Comput Chem 25:1656
Schmid N, Eichenberger AP, Choutko A, Riniker S, Winger M, Mark AE, Van Gunsteren WF (2011) Definition and testing of the GROMOS force-field versions 54A7 and 54B7. Eur Biophys J 40:843–856
Jorgensen WL, Maxwell DS, Tirado-Rives J (1996) Development and testing of the OPLS all-atom force field on conformational energetics and properties of organic liquids. J Am Chem Soc 118:11225–11236
Kaminski GA, Friesner RA, Tirado-Rives J, Jorgensen WL (2001) Evaluation and reparameterization of the OPLS-AA force field for proteins via comparison with accurate quantum chemical calculations on peptides. J Phys Chem B 105(28):6474–6487
Harder E, Damm W, Maple J, Wu C, Reboul M, Xiang JY, Wang L, Lupyan D, Dahlgren MK, Knight JL, Kaus JW, Cerutti DS, Krilov G, Jorgensen WL, Abel R, Friesner RA (2015) OPLS3: a force field providing broad coverage of drug-like small molecules and proteins. J Chem Theor Comput 12:281–296
Riniker S (2018) Fixed-charge atomistic force fields for molecular dynamics simulations in the condensed phase: an overview. J Chem Inf Model 58:565–578
Jorgensen WL, Chandrasekhar J, Madura JD (1983) Comparison of simple potential functions for simulating liquid water. J Chem Phys 79(2):926–935
Hermans J, Berendsen HJC, Van Gunsteren WF, Postma JPM (1984) A consistent empirical potential for water-protein interactions. Biopolymers 23:1513–1518
Boonstra S, Onck PR, Van der Giessen E (2016) CHARMM TIP3P water model suppresses peptide folding by solvating the unfolded state. J Phys Chem B 120:3692–3698
Vega C, Abascal JLF, Conde MM, Aragones JL (2008) What ice can teach us about water interactions: a critical comparison of the performance of different water models. Faraday Discuss 141:251–276
Abascal JLF, Vega C (2005) A general purpose model for the condensed phases of water: TIP4P/2005. J Chem Phys 123:234505
Horn HW, Swope WC, Pitera JW, Madura JD, Dick TJ, Hura GL, Head-Gordon T (2004) Development of an improved four-site water model for biomolecular simulations: TIP4P-Ew. J Chem Phys 120:9665
Wang L-P, Martinez TJ, Pande VS (2014) Building force fields: an automatic, systematic and reproducible approach. J Chem Theor Comput 5:1885–1891
Izadi S, Anandakrishnan R, Onufriev AV (2014) Building water models: a different approach. J Phys Chem Lett 5:3863–3871
Nerenberg PS, Head-Gordon T (2011) Optimizing protein-solvent force fields to reproduce intrinsic conformational preferences of model peptides. J Chem Theory Comp 7:1220–1230
Best RB, Mittal J (2010) Protein simulations with an optimized water model: cooperative helix formation and temperature-induced unfolded state collapse. J Phys Chem B 114:14916–14923
Luo Y, Roux B (2009) Simulations of osmotic pressure in concentrated aqueous salt solutions. J Phys Chem Lett 1:183–189
Joung IS, Cheatham TE (2008) Determination of alkali and halide monovalent ion parameters for use in explicitly solvated biomolecular simulations. J Phys Chem B 112:9020–9041
Lindorff-Larsen K, Piana S, Palmo K, Maragakis P, Klepeis JL, Dror RO, Shaw DE (2010) Improved side-chain torsion potentials for the Amber ff99SB protein force field. Proteins 78:1950–1958
Lindorff-Larsen K, Maragakis P, Piana S, Eastwood MP, Dror RO, Shaw DE (2012) Systematic validation of protein force fields against experimental data. PLoS One 7(2):e32131
Snow CD, Nguyen H, Pande VS, Gruebele M (2002) Absolute comparison of simulated and experimental protein-folding dynamics. Nature 420:102–106
Snow CD, Zagrovic B, Pande VS (2002) The trp cage: folding kinetics and unfolded state topology via molecular dynamics simulations. J Am Chem Soc 124:14548
Zagrovic B, Snow CD, Shirts MR, Pande VS (2002) Simulation of folding of a small alpha-helical protein in atomistic detail using worldwide-distributed computing. J Mol Biol 323:927
Freddolino PL, Park S, Roux B, Schulten K (2009) Force field bias in protein folding simulations. Biophys J 96:3772–3780
Freddolino PL, Harrison CB, Liu Y, Schulten K (2010) Challenges in protein folding simulations. Nat Phys 6:751–758
Shalongo W, Dugad L, Stellwagen E (1994) Distribution of helicity within the model peptide Acetyl(AAQAA)3amide. J Am Chem Soc 116:8288–8293
Best RB, Hummer G (2009) Optimized molecular dynamics force fields applied to the helix-coil transition of polypeptides. J Phys Chem B 113:9004–9015
Mittal J, Best RB (2010) Tackling force-field bias in protein folding simulations: folding of villin HP35 and pin WW domains in explicit water. Biophys J 99:L26–L28
Best RB, Mittal J (2010) Balance between α and β structures in ab initio protein folding. J Phys Chem B 114:8790–8798
Piana S, Lindorff-Larsen K, Shaw DE (2011) How robust are protein folding simulations with respect to force field parameterization. Biophys J 100:L47–L49
Jiang F, Zhou C-Y, Wu Y-D (2014) Residue-specific force field based on the protein coil library. RSFF1: modification of OPLS-AA/L. J Phys Chem B 118:6983–6998
Zhou C-Y, Jiang F, Wu Y-D (2015) Residue-specific force field based on protein coil library. RSFF2: modification of AMBER ff99SB. J Phys Chem B 119:1035–1047
Piana S, Klepeis JL, Shaw DE (2014) Assessing the accuracy of physical models used in protein-folding simulations: quantitative evidence from long molecular dynamics simulations. Curr Opin Struct Biol 24:98–105
Best RB, Hummer G (2016) Microscopic interpretation of folding phi-values using the transition-path ensemble. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113(12):3263–3268
Nettels D, Müller-Späth S, Küster F, Hofmann H, Haenni D, Rüegger S, Reymond L, Hoffmann A, Kubelka J, Heinz B, Gast K, Best RB, Schuler B (2009) Single molecule spectroscopy of the temperature-induced collapse of unfolded proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:20740–20745
Petrov D, Zagrovic B (2014) Are current atomistic forcefields accurate enough to study proteins in crowded environments? PLoS Comput Biol 10(5):e1003638
Nerenberg PS, Jo B, Tripathy A, Head-Gordon T (2012) Optimizing solute-water van der Waals interactions to reproduce solvation free energies. J Phys Chem B 116:4524–4534
Best RB, Zheng W, Mittal J (2014) Balanced protein-water interactions improve properties of disordered proteins and non-specific protein association. J Chem Theor Comput 10:5113–5124
Piana S, Donchev AG, Robustelli P, Shaw DE (2015) Water dispersion interactions strongly influence simulated structural properties of disordered protein states. J Phys Chem B 119:5113–5123
Robustelli P, Piana S, Shaw DE (2018) Developing a molecular dynamics force field for both folded and disordered protein states. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115(21):E4758–E4766
Ahmed MC, Papaleo E, Lindorff-Larsen K (2018) How well do force fields capture the strength of salt bridges in proteins? PeerJ 6:e4967
Debiec KT, Cerutti DS, Baker LR, Gronenborn AM, Case DA, Chong LT (2016) Further along the road less travelled: AMBER ff15ipq, an original protein force field built on a self-consistent physical model. J Chem Theor Comput 12:3926–3947
Debiec KT (2014) Evaluating the strength of salt bridges: a comparison of current biomolecular force fields. J Phys Chem B 118:6561–6569
Klauda JB, Venable RM, Freites JA, O’Connor JW, Tobias DJ, Mondragon-Ramirez C, Vorobyov I, Mackerell AD, Pastor RW (2010) Update of the CHARMM all-atom additive force field for lipids: validation on six lipid types. J Phys Chem B 114:7830–7843
Domanski J, Sansom MSP, Stansfeld P, Best RB (2018) Balancing force field protein-lipid interactions to capture transmembrane helix-helix association. J Chem Theor Comput 14:1706–1715
Jambeck JPM, Lyubartsev AP (2012) Derivation and systematic validation of a refined all-atom force field for phosphatidylcholine lipids. J Phys Chem B 116:3164–3179
Jambeck JPM, Lyubartsev AP (2012) An extension and further validation of an all-atomistic force field for biological membranes. J Chem Theor Comput 8:2938–2948
Horinek D, Netz RR (2011) Can simulations quantitatively predict peptide transfer free energies to urea solutions? Thermodynamic concepts and force field limitations. J Phys Chem A 115:6125–6136
Zheng W, Borgia A, Borgia MB, Schuler B, Best RB (2015) Empirical optimization of interactions between proteins and chemical denaturants in molecular simulations. J Chem Theor Comput 11:5543–5553
Hummer G, Köfinger J (2015) Bayesian ensemble refinement by replica simulations and reweighting. J Chem Phys 143:243150
Rangan R, Bonomi M, Heller GT, Cesari A, Bussi G, Vendruscolo M (2018) Determination of structural ensembles of proteins: restraining vs reweighting. J Chem Theor Comput 14:6632
Di Pierro M, Elber R (2013) Automated optimization of potential parameters. J Chem Theor Comput 9:3311–3320
Wennberg CL, Murtola T, Pall S, Abraham MJ, Hess B, Lindahl E (2015) Direct-space corrections enable fast and accurate Lorentz−Berthelot combination rule Lennard-Jones lattice summation. J Chem Theor Comput 11:5737–5746
Flyvbjerg H, Petersen HG (1989) Error estimates on averages of correlated data. J Chem Phys 91:461–466
Acknowledgment
RB is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases of the National Institutes of Health.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Best, R.B. (2019). Atomistic Force Fields for Proteins. In: Bonomi, M., Camilloni, C. (eds) Biomolecular Simulations. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2022. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9608-7_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9608-7_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-9607-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-9608-7
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols