Advertisement

Salmonella pp 47-61 | Cite as

Determination of Antimicrobial Resistance in Salmonella spp.

Protocol
First Online:
Part of the Methods in Molecular Biology book series (MIMB, volume 1225)

Abstract

Infections with Salmonella are an important public health problem worldwide. Salmonella are one of the most common causes of food-borne illness in humans. There are many types of Salmonella but they can be divided into two broad categories: those that cause typhoid and those that do not. The typhoidal Salmonella (TS), such as S. enterica subsp. enterica serovars Typhi and S. Paratyphi only colonize humans and are usually acquired by the consumption of food or water contaminated with human fecal material. The much broader group of non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) usually results from improperly handled food that has been contaminated by animal or human fecal material. Antimicrobials are critical to the successful outcome of invasive Salmonella infections and enteric fever. Due to resistance to the older antimicrobials, ciprofloxacin [fluoroquinolone (FQ)] has become the first-line drug for treatment. Nevertheless, switch to FQ has led to a subsequent increase in the occurrence of salmonellae resistant to this antimicrobial agent. The exact mechanism of this FQ resistance is not fully understood. FQ resistance has driven the use of third-generation cephalosporins and azithromycin. However, there are sporadic worldwide reports of high level resistance to expanded-spectrum cephalosporins (such as ceftriaxone) in TS and in NTS it has been recognized since 1988 and are increasing in prevalence worldwide. Already there are rare reports of azithromycin resistance leading to treatment failure. Spread of such resistance would further greatly limit the available therapeutic options, and leave us with only the reserve antimicrobials such as carbapenem and tigecycline as possible treatment options. Here, we describe the methods involved in the genotypic characterization of antimicrobial resistance in clinical isolates of salmonellae.

Key words

Salmonella Fluoroquinolones Cephalosporins Clinical and laboratory standards institute Mutations gyrA β-Lactamases 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Harish BN, Menezes GA (2011) Antimicrobial resistance in typhoidal salmonellae. Indian J Med Microbiol 29(3):223–229PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Yu VL, Merigan TC Jr, Barriere SL (eds) (1999) Antimicrobial therapy and vaccines. William & Wilkins, Baltimore, MDGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Rowe B, Ward LR, Threlfall EJ (1997) Multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhi: a worldwide epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 24(Suppl 1):S106–S109PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Smith HW, Parsell Z, Green P (1978) Thermosensitive H1 plasmids determining citrate utilization. J Gen Microbiol 109(2):305–311PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Wain J, Kidgell C (2004) The emergence of multidrug resistance to antimicrobial agents for the treatment of typhoid fever. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98(7):423–430PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Toro CS, Lobos SR, Calderon I, Rodriguez M, Mora GC (1990) Clinical isolate of a porin-less Salmonella typhi resistant to high levels of chloramphenicol. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 34(9):1715–1719PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Parry CM, Thuy CT, Dongol S, Karkey A, Vinh H, Chinh NT et al (2010) Suitable disk antimicrobial susceptibility breakpoints defining Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi isolates with reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54:5201–5208PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Harish BN, Menezes GA, Sarangapani K, Parija SC (2008) A case report and review of the literature: Ciprofloxacin resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi in India. J Infect Dev Ctries 2(4):324–327PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Menezes GA, Harish BN, Khan MA, Goessens WH, Hays JP (2012) Antimicrobial resistance trends in blood culture positive Salmonella Typhi isolates from Pondicherry, India, 2005-2009. Clin Microbiol Infect 18(3):239–245PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Renuka K, Kapil A, Kabra SK, Wig N, Das BK, Prasad VV et al (2004) Reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and gyrA gene mutation in North Indian strains of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi and serotype Paratyphi A. Microb Drug Resist 10(2):146–153PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Giraud E, Brisabois A, Martel JL, Chaslus-Dancla E (1999) Comparative studies of mutations in animal isolates and experimental in vitro- and in vivo-selected mutants of Salmonella spp. suggest a counterselection of highly fluoroquinolone-resistant strains in the field. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43(9):2131–2137PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Lindgren PK, Karlsson A, Hughes D (2003) Mutation rate and evolution of fluoroquinolone resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from patients with urinary tract infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47:3222–3232CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Brown JC, Shanahan PM, Jesudason MV, Thomson CJ, Amyes SG (1996) Mutations responsible for reduced susceptibility to 4-quinolones in clinical isolates of multi-resistant Salmonella typhi in India. J Antimicrob Chemother 37(5):891–900PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Wu JJ, Ko W, Tsai SH, Yan JJ (2007) Prevalence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance determinants QnrA, QnrB, and QnrS among clinical isolates of Enterobacter cloacae in a Taiwanese hospital. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51(4):1223–1227PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Robicsek A, Strahilevitz J, Jacoby GA, Macielag M, Abbanat D, Park CH et al (2006) Fluoroquinolone-modifying enzyme: a new adaptation of a common aminoglycoside acetyltransferase. Nat Med 12(1):83–88PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Paterson DL, Rice LB, Bonomo RA (2001) Rapid method of extraction and analysis of extended spectrum β-lactamases from clinical strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Clin Microbiol Infect 7:709–711PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Mabilat C, Goussard S (1993) PCR detection and identification of genes for extended spectrum β-lactamases. In: Persiang DH, Smith TF, Tenover FC, white TJ (Eds). Diagnostic molecular Microbiology: principles and applications. Washington DC: American Society of Microbiology. pp. 553–559Google Scholar
  18. 18.
    Tasli H, Bahar IH (2005) Molecular charatcterisation of TEM and SHV derived extended spectrum beta lactamases in hospital based Enterobacteriaceae in Turkey. Jpn J Infect Dis 58:162–167PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Karisik E, Ellington MJ, Pike R, Warren RE, Livermore DM, Woodford N (2006) Molecular characterisation of plasmids encoding CTX-M-15 β-lactamase from Escherichia coli strains in the United Kingdom. J Antimicrob Chemother 58:665–668PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Woodford N, Fagan EJ, Ellington MJ (2006) Multiplex PCR for rapid detection of genes encoding CTX-M extended-spectrum β-lactamases. J Antimicrob Chemother 57:154–155PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Pérez-Pérez FJ, Hanson ND (2002) Detection of plasmid-mediated AmpC beta-lactamase genes in clinical isolates by using multiplex PCR. J Clin Microbiol 40(6):2153–2162PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Carattoli A, Bertini A, Lilla L, Falbo V, Hopkins K, Threlfall EJ (2005) Identification of plasmids by PCR-based replicon typing. J Microbiol Methods 63(3):219–228PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Levesque C, Piche L, Larose C, Roy PH (1995) PCR mapping of integrons reveals several novel combination of resistance genes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 39:185–191PubMedCrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Khan S, Harish BN, Menezes GA, Acharya NS, Parija SC (2012) Early diagnosis of typhoid fever by nested PCR for flagellin gene of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. Indian J Med Res 136(5):850–854PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Chmielewski R, Wieliczko A, Kuczkowski M, Mazurkiewicz M, Ugorski M (2002) Comparison of ITS Profiling, REP- and ERIC-PCR of Salmonella Enteritidis isolates from Poland. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 49:163–168PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of MicrobiologyJawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER)PondicherryIndia
  2. 2.Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical SciencesUniversity of HailHailKingdom of Saudi Arabia

Personalised recommendations

Cite protocol

Buy options