Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder and a mechanistically complex disease. For the last decade, human models of AD using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have emerged as a powerful way to understand disease pathogenesis in relevant human cell types. In this review, we summarize the state of the field and how this technology can apply to studies of both familial and sporadic studies of AD. We discuss patient-derived iPSCs, genome editing, differentiation of neural cell types, and three-dimensional organoids, and speculate on the future of this type of work for increasing our understanding of, and improving therapeutic development for, this devastating disease.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Cataldo AM et al (2000) Endocytic pathway abnormalities precede amyloid beta deposition in sporadic Alzheimer’s disease and Down syndrome: differential effects of APOE genotype and presenilin mutations. Am J Pathol 157(1):277–286
Serrano-Pozo A et al (2011) Neuropathological alterations in Alzheimer disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 1(1):a006189
Giandomenico SL, Sutcliffe M, Lancaster MA (2021) Generation and long-term culture of advanced cerebral organoids for studying later stages of neural development. Nat Protoc 16(2):579–602
Shou Y et al (2020) The application of brain organoids: from neuronal development to neurological diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol 8:579659
Takahashi K et al (2007) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell 131(5):861–872
Takahashi K, Yamanaka S (2006) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126(4):663–676
Kang X et al (2015) Effects of integrating and non-integrating reprogramming methods on copy number variation and genomic stability of human induced pluripotent stem cells. PLoS One 10(7):e0131128
Miura K et al (2009) Variation in the safety of induced pluripotent stem cell lines. Nat Biotechnol 27(8):743–745
Ma X, Kong L, Zhu S (2017) Reprogramming cell fates by small molecules. Protein Cell 8(5):328–348
Weltner J, Trokovic R (2021) Reprogramming of fibroblasts to human iPSCs by CRISPR activators. Methods Mol Biol 2239:175–198
Nakagawa M et al (2008) Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells without Myc from mouse and human fibroblasts. Nat Biotechnol 26(1):101–106
Ye L et al (2013) Blood cell-derived induced pluripotent stem cells free of reprogramming factors generated by Sendai viral vectors. Stem Cells Transl Med 2(8):558–566
Gore A et al (2011) Somatic coding mutations in human induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 471(7336):63–67
Assou S et al (2020) Recurrent genetic abnormalities in human pluripotent stem cells: definition and routine detection in culture supernatant by targeted droplet digital PCR. Stem Cell Rep 14(1):1–8
Buta C et al (2013) Reconsidering pluripotency tests: do we still need teratoma assays? Stem Cell Res 11(1):552–562
Rose SE et al (2018) Leptomeninges-derived induced pluripotent stem cells and directly converted neurons from autopsy cases with varying neuropathologic backgrounds. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 77:353–360
Young JE et al (2015) Elucidating molecular phenotypes caused by the SORL1 Alzheimer’s disease genetic risk factor using human induced pluripotent stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 16(4):373–385
Chambers SM et al (2009) Highly efficient neural conversion of human ES and iPS cells by dual inhibition of SMAD signaling. Nat Biotechnol 27(3):275–280
Kim DS et al (2010) Robust enhancement of neural differentiation from human ES and iPS cells regardless of their innate difference in differentiation propensity. Stem Cell Rev Rep 6(2):270–281
Shi Y et al (2012) Human cerebral cortex development from pluripotent stem cells to functional excitatory synapses. Nat Neurosci 15(3):477–486. S1
Shi Y, Kirwan P, Livesey FJ (2012) Directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells to cerebral cortex neurons and neural networks. Nat Protoc 7(10):1836–1846
Shi Y et al (2012) A human stem cell model of early Alzheimer’s disease pathology in Down syndrome. Sci Transl Med 4(124):124ra29
Maroof AM et al (2013) Directed differentiation and functional maturation of cortical interneurons from human embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 12(5):559–572
Yuan SH et al (2011) Cell-surface marker signatures for the isolation of neural stem cells, glia and neurons derived from human pluripotent stem cells. PLoS One 6(3):e17540
Israel MA et al (2012) Probing sporadic and familial Alzheimer’s disease using induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 482(7384):216–220
Knupp A et al (2020) Depletion of the AD risk gene SORL1 selectively impairs neuronal endosomal traffic independent of amyloidogenic APP processing. Cell Rep 31(9):107719
van der Kant R et al (2019) Cholesterol metabolism is a druggable axis that independently regulates tau and amyloid-beta in iPSC-derived Alzheimer’s disease neurons. Cell Stem Cell 24(3):363–375. e9
Woodruff G et al (2016) Defective transcytosis of APP and lipoproteins in human iPSC-derived neurons with familial Alzheimer’s disease mutations. Cell Rep 17(3):759–773
Woodruff G et al (2013) The presenilin-1 DeltaE9 mutation results in reduced gamma-secretase activity, but not total loss of PS1 function, in isogenic human stem cells. Cell Rep 5(4):974–985
Young JE et al (2018) Stabilizing the Retromer complex in a human stem cell model of Alzheimer’s disease reduces TAU phosphorylation independently of amyloid precursor protein. Stem Cell Rep 10(3):1046–1058
Vierbuchen T et al (2010) Direct conversion of fibroblasts to functional neurons by defined factors. Nature 463(7284):1035–1041
Mertens J et al (2015) Directly reprogrammed human neurons retain aging-associated transcriptomic signatures and reveal age-related nucleocytoplasmic defects. Cell Stem Cell 17(6):705–718
D’Souza GX et al (2020) The application of in vitro-derived human neurons in neurodegenerative disease modeling. J Neurosci Res 99:124–140
Zhang Y et al (2013) Rapid single-step induction of functional neurons from human pluripotent stem cells. Neuron 78(5):785–798
Wang C et al (2017) Scalable production of iPSC-derived human neurons to identify tau-lowering compounds by high-content screening. Stem Cell Rep 9(4):1221–1233
Babcock KR et al (2021) Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Stem Cell Reports 16:681–693
Li Puma DD, Piacentini R, Grassi C (2020) Does impairment of adult neurogenesis contribute to pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease? A still open question. Front Mol Neurosci 13:578211
Xu Y et al (2020) GABAergic inhibitory interneuron deficits in Alzheimer’s disease: implications for treatment. Front Neurosci 14:660
Yang N et al (2017) Generation of pure GABAergic neurons by transcription factor programming. Nat Methods 14(6):621–628
Abud EM et al (2017) iPSC-derived human microglia-like cells to study neurological diseases. Neuron 94(2):278–293. e9
McQuade A et al (2018) Development and validation of a simplified method to generate human microglia from pluripotent stem cells. Mol Neurodegener 13(1):67
Russo FB et al (2018) Modeling the interplay between neurons and astrocytes in autism using human induced pluripotent stem cells. Biol Psychiatry 83(7):569–578
Yao H et al (2016) The Na(+)/HCO3(−) co-transporter is protective during ischemia in astrocytes. Neuroscience 339:329–337
Fong LK et al (2018) Full-length amyloid precursor protein regulates lipoprotein metabolism and amyloid-beta clearance in human astrocytes. J Biol Chem 293(29):11341–11357
Douvaras P, Fossati V (2015) Generation and isolation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells from human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Protoc 10(8):1143–1154
Ehrlich M et al (2017) Rapid and efficient generation of oligodendrocytes from human induced pluripotent stem cells using transcription factors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114(11):E2243–E2252
Lancaster MA et al (2013) Cerebral organoids model human brain development and microcephaly. Nature 501(7467):373–379
Kadoshima T et al (2013) Self-organization of axial polarity, inside-out layer pattern, and species-specific progenitor dynamics in human ES cell-derived neocortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110(50):20284–20289
Krefft O et al (2018) Generation of standardized and reproducible forebrain-type cerebral organoids from human induced pluripotent stem cells. J Vis Exp 131:e56768
Birey F et al (2017) Assembly of functionally integrated human forebrain spheroids. Nature 545(7652):54–59
Trujillo CA et al (2019) Complex oscillatory waves emerging from cortical organoids model early human brain network development. Cell Stem Cell 25(4):558–569. e7
Ormel PR et al (2018) Microglia innately develop within cerebral organoids. Nat Commun 9(1):4167
Zhang DY, Song H, Ming G (2021) Modeling neurological disorders using brain organoids. Semin Cell Dev Biol 111:4–14
Choi SH et al (2014) A three-dimensional human neural cell culture model of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 515(7526):274–278
Gonzalez C et al (2018) Modeling amyloid beta and tau pathology in human cerebral organoids. Mol Psychiatry 23(12):2363–2374
Lin YT et al (2018) APOE4 causes widespread molecular and cellular alterations associated with Alzheimer’s disease phenotypes in human iPSC-derived brain cell types. Neuron 98:1141–1154
Kwart D et al (2019) A large panel of isogenic APP and PSEN1 mutant human iPSC neurons reveals shared endosomal abnormalities mediated by APP beta-CTFs, not Aβ. Neuron 104(2):256–270. e5
Yagi T et al (2011) Modeling familial Alzheimer’s disease with induced pluripotent stem cells. Hum Mol Genet 20(23):4530–4539
Kondo T et al (2013) Modeling Alzheimer’s disease with iPSCs reveals stress phenotypes associated with intracellular Abeta and differential drug responsiveness. Cell Stem Cell 12(4):487–496
Liu Q et al (2014) Effect of potent gamma-secretase modulator in human neurons derived from multiple presenilin 1-induced pluripotent stem cell mutant carriers. JAMA Neurol 71(12):1481–1489
Paquet D et al (2016) Efficient introduction of specific homozygous and heterozygous mutations using CRISPR/Cas9. Nature 533(7601):125–129
Ortiz-Virumbrales M et al (2017) CRISPR/Cas9-Correctable mutation-related molecular and physiological phenotypes in iPSC-derived Alzheimer’s PSEN2 (N141I) neurons. Acta Neuropathol Commun 5(1):77
Muratore CR et al (2014) The familial Alzheimer’s disease APPV717I mutation alters APP processing and Tau expression in iPSC-derived neurons. Hum Mol Genet 23(13):3523–3536
Raja WK et al (2016) Self-organizing 3D human neural tissue derived from induced pluripotent stem cells recapitulate Alzheimer’s disease phenotypes. PLoS One 11(9):e0161969
Cataldo AM et al (2008) Down syndrome fibroblast model of Alzheimer-related endosome pathology: accelerated endocytosis promotes late endocytic defects. Am J Pathol 173(2):370–384
Langness VF et al (2021) Cholesterol-lowering drugs reduce APP processing to Abeta by inducing APP dimerization. Mol Biol Cell 32(3):247–259
Karch CM, Goate AM (2015) Alzheimer’s disease risk genes and mechanisms of disease pathogenesis. Biol Psychiatry 77(1):43–51
Flamier A et al (2018) Modeling late-onset sporadic Alzheimer’s disease through BMI1 deficiency. Cell Rep 23(9):2653–2666
Meyer K et al (2019) REST and neural gene network dysregulation in iPSC models of Alzheimer’s disease. Cell Rep 26(5):1112–1127. e9
Corder EH et al (1994) Protective effect of apolipoprotein E type 2 allele for late onset Alzheimer disease. Nat Genet 7(2):180–184
Farrer LA et al (1997) Effects of age, sex, and ethnicity on the association between apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer disease. A meta-analysis. APOE and Alzheimer Disease Meta Analysis Consortium. JAMA 278(16):1349–1356
Holtzman DM, Herz J, Bu G (2012) Apolipoprotein E and apolipoprotein E receptors: normal biology and roles in Alzheimer disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2(3):a006312
Wang C et al (2018) Gain of toxic apolipoprotein E4 effects in human iPSC-derived neurons is ameliorated by a small-molecule structure corrector. Nat Med 24(5):647–657
Sullivan SE et al (2019) Candidate-based screening via gene modulation in human neurons and astrocytes implicates FERMT2 in Abeta and TAU proteostasis. Hum Mol Genet 28(5):718–735
Fjorback AW et al (2012) Retromer binds the FANSHY sorting motif in SorLA to regulate amyloid precursor protein sorting and processing. J Neurosci 32(4):1467–1480
Robbins JP et al (2018) Clusterin is required for beta-amyloid toxicity in human iPSC-derived neurons. Front Neurosci 12:504
Lidstrom AM et al (1998) Clusterin (apolipoprotein J) protein levels are increased in hippocampus and in frontal cortex in Alzheimer’s disease. Exp Neurol 154(2):511–521
Pottier C et al (2013) TREM2 R47H variant as a risk factor for early-onset Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 35(1):45–49
Brownjohn PW et al (2018) Functional studies of missense TREM2 mutations in human stem cell-derived microglia. Stem Cell Rep 10(4):1294–1307
Martins S et al (2020) IPSC-derived neuronal cultures carrying the Alzheimer’s disease associated TREM2 R47H variant enables the construction of an Aβ-induced gene regulatory network. Int J Mol Sci 21(12):4516
Miller JD et al (2013) Human iPSC-based modeling of late-onset disease via progerin-induced aging. Cell Stem Cell 13(6):691–705
Tagliafierro L, Zamora ME, Chiba-Falek O (2019) Multiplication of the SNCA locus exacerbates neuronal nuclear aging. Hum Mol Genet 28(3):407–421
Cohen-Carmon D et al (2020) Progerin-induced transcriptional changes in Huntington’s disease human pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons. Mol Neurobiol 57(3):1768–1777
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Young, J.E., Goldstein, L.S.B. (2023). Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (hiPSC)-Derived Neurons and Glia for the Elucidation of Pathogenic Mechanisms in Alzheimer’s Disease. In: Chun, J. (eds) Alzheimer’s Disease. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2561. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2655-9_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2655-9_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-2654-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-2655-9
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols