1 Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an important staple food crop in Ethiopia. Ethiopia is the second largest wheat-producing country in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), following South Africa [1]. Wheat provides about 15% of the caloric intake for the population [2], placing it second after maize and slightly ahead of teff, sorghum, and enset [3]. It is also the fourth largest cereal crop produced by close to 5 million smallholder farmers, which make up about 35% of all smallholder farmers in Ethiopia [4, 5]. In 2020/21 for example, wheat accounted for close to 15% of the acreage of arable land and a fifth of all cereal food crops produced in the country [6].

The productivity of wheat varies in different parts of the country depending on the agroecological conditions and other factors. The average annual production of wheat was 5.8 million tons [6]. The national average wheat productivity is around 3.1 tons per ha [6], which is below the average of both the SSA and the world [7]. Out of the total 5.8 million tons produced in the country, the Amhara region in total contributes 1.8 million tons, of which the East Gojjam zone alone contributes about 0.47 million tons [6].

Ethiopian farmers cultivate both local and certified seeds of wheat varieties. However, the coverage of certified seeds of improved varieties is quite low [3]. Most of the wheat production goes to household consumption in different forms and is supplied to the local market. A quite large quantity of wheat also goes to agro-industries for processing flour wheat for making bread, injera (traditional Ethiopian pancake), macaroni, pasta, and other food types. The demand for both durum and bread is increasing due to the expansion of bread flour and pasta factories in the country [8].

Limited availability of and access to quality seed is regarded as one of the main obstacles to increasing crop productivity in Ethiopia [9]. In most cases, due to several reasons, farmers have no access to quality seed from suppliers, which forces them to use poor-quality seed and eventually obtain low production. The seed systems should be strengthened for farmers to access quality seed at the required time and amount [10, 11]. The seed system in Ethiopia represents the entire complex of organizational, institutional, and individual operations associated with the development, multiplication, processing, storage, distribution, and marketing of seeds in the country [12]. The seed systems development strategy has recognized the three seed systems in the Ethiopian seed sector, namely the formal seed system, the informal seed system, and the intermediary seed systems [13, 14]. The intermediary seed system shares attributes of both the formal and the informal seed systems [11, 14].

Smallholder farmers are involved in multiple seed systems, which can guarantee them access to seed in terms of quantity and quality [15]. Nearly 90% of smallholder farmers access seed through the informal seed system, which is the primary seed source for rural communities [16, 17]. Farmers use their social network as an important feature of the informal seed system to access the seed. This involves seed exchanges among farmers in the context of social interactions [18,19,20]. The formal seed system covers only a small portion of the seed demand of smallholder farmers. Seed companies in the formal sector mainly focus on a few crops, particularly wheat and hybrid maize. Wheat and hybrid maize make up nearly 64% and 23%, respectively, of the total certified seed supply from the formal sector [21].

Earlier researches conducted in Ethiopia have focused on the adoption of bread wheat varieties [22, 23]. There is limited information on how and to what extent farmers access seeds from different seed sources. Particularly, information regarding the identification of existing seed sources through which farmers are accessing the seed they want is scarce. Knowing the seed sources and the available channels could help farmers secure the seed, trace back to the sources when such quality problems occur, and maintain the linkage between seed suppliers and farmers. Furthermore, evaluating the quality of the seed that is supplied by different seed sources and understanding the various constraints that inhibit farmers from using quality seed are crucial to improving the seed security of the farming community [20]. There is a lack of information on the potential seed sources and possible interventions to improve the existing seed sources in the major wheat-producing areas of the Amhara region of Ethiopia, including Baso Liben district. According to the Baso Liben district office of agriculture (BLWoA), insufficient amounts of improved bread wheat seed, higher agricultural input prices, an inadequate supply of good quality seed, inadequate seed distribution, and a lack of information on the extent of bread wheat seed sources are the major constraints in the district [24]. Therefore, this research aims: (1) to identify the existing bread wheat seed sources; (2) to identify the key factors affecting the use of improved bread wheat seed; and (3) to assess practitioners’ (farmers and experts) suggestions to improve the existing seed sources in Northwest Ethiopia.

2 Methods

2.1 Site and sample selection

The present study was carried out in Baso Liben district, Amhara region, Ethiopia (Fig. 1) during the 2017/18 main cropping season. Baso Liben district is one of the 15 districts found in the East Gojjam zone of the Amhara region of Ethiopia. It is characterized by surplus crop production. It is among the most wheat-producing districts of the region as well as the country [24]. Based on the distribution and economic importance of bread wheat in the region and the main bread wheat-belt area of the region, the district was purposefully selected for the present study.

Fig. 1
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Map of the study area

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Multistage sampling procedures were used to select the sample villages (peasant associations) and individual respondents. Six villages were purposefully selected based on the information gathered from local experts and farmers during the reconnaissance survey. These villages have the potential for wheat production and can represent the whole villages in the district in terms of production potential and farmers’ access to available wheat seed sources. A random sampling technique was used for selecting individual respondents from these villages. Since the total number of households in the district that engage in wheat production is greater than 10,000, the formula proposed by Cochran [25] was used to determine the sample size of the study.

$$no= \frac{{z}^{2}pq}{{d}^{2}}$$

where, n0 = required sample size (when the population is > 10,000) Z = 95% confident limit (= 1.96), p = proportion of population to be included in the sample (p = 10% = 0.1), q = 1-p = 1–0.1 = 0.9), d = margin of error (d = 5% = 0.05). Therefore, the sample size was

$${n_0} = \, {(1.96)^2}(0.1) \, (0.9)/{(0.05)^2} = \, 138$$

However, due to time and resource constraints, the sample size was reduced to 108. Then a simple random sampling technique was applied to select the individual respondents. Experts that are experienced with wheat production and have an in-depth understanding of the seed distribution and marketing procedures, as well as farmers, were identified for focus group discussions (FGDs).

2.2 Data collection and analysis

Data were collected both from primary and secondary sources. A semi-structured questionnaire was developed to gather information on farmers’ perceptions of seed quality, seed sources, agronomic practices of wheat production, and socio-economic factors that limit the use of production technologies (input supply, credit facilities, etc.). A consultation was made with local experts on the actual bread wheat production status of the district, seed sources, seed coverage, variety performance, and the involvement of different stakeholders in bread wheat seed production, distribution, and marketing. Prior to data collection, experts were also consulted about the contents of the survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was pre-tested with a few respondents, enabling the modification of some of the questions that were either irrelevant to the current situation or out of context. Based on the experts’ suggestions and the pre-test, those questions that were confusing, ambiguous, repeated, or difficult to understand were eliminated. Focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out among local experts and farmers to collect further information. A total of 15 people, including farmers and local experts, participated in the FGDs. Before data collection, each participant was contacted both in person and via telephone to explain the objective of the study and the importance of their participation and to make an appointment. The data collected were analyzed both quantitatively using descriptive statistics (SPSS v23.0) and qualitatively using line-by-line examining the FGDs transcript.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents

The distribution of the respondents according to various demographic characteristics is presented in Table 1. 85.2% of the respondents were male, and the remaining 14.8% were female. This is related to the dominance of male-headed households in the area, which is common across the country. Regarding the respondents’ age, 74% of them belonged to the age range of 21–50 years. This indicates that most of the respondents were in the economically active and productive age group. Almost 26% of those polled were over the age of 50. The engagement of farmers in bread wheat production in the age range between 15 and 30 years old was lower (6.5%) than in the other age categories. This might be associated with the limited land availability for youth in the farming community, i.e. the vast portion of land in the rural community is in the hands of the elder farmers [24]. In general, respondents do have long years of experience in wheat production. The longer experience could help farmers acquire better farming knowledge and skills in crop production, management, and input utilization. The experience that farmers acquire over time is supposed to positively influence farmers’ perceptions of adapting to new agricultural technologies [23]. In terms of the educational status of the respondents, about 43.5% of them were illiterate, followed by 30.6% of the respondents who could only read and write. The remaining 22.2% and 3.7% of the respondents had attended elementary and secondary schools, respectively. The low literacy level of farmers may affect their adoption rate of new agricultural technologies, including improved seeds, which resulted in low production and productivity [23]. Enrolling in formal schooling enhances the farmers’ ability to perceive, interpret, and respond to new events in the context of risk. Education is taken as an important explanatory factor that positively affects the decision of households to adopt new agricultural technologies [26] and improves the technical efficiency of producers [27]. In terms of labor sources, 55.6% of the households use only family labor for agricultural production and related activities, and 43.5% use both family labor and hired labor. This relates to the experience of farmers in using family labor for most of the farming activities and hiring labor for critical farming activities. Discussions with key informants revealed that the role of hired labor became apparent and explicitly manifested at times during critical farming periods including planting, weeding, harvesting, and threshing.

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents.
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3.2 Status of improved bread wheat seed production

Results show that all respondents have grown bread wheat for the past 3 years (2015/16 to 2017/18), though the amount of seed used for each year varies. In 2017/18, for instance, about 39.8% of farmers used improved seed that was accessed through a formal system, while the remaining 60.2% accessed the seed through an informal seed system. The probable reasons for the low utilization of improved seed include the high seed price, limited availability of seed from suppliers, and lack of awareness and limited information about the existing bread wheat varieties [12]. Previous studies indicated that farmers' seed demand has been significantly addressed through informal mechanisms [17]. The informal seed system is still the major source of seed, and the involvement of the formal seed system is far from the diversified demand of the rural communities [21]. In Ethiopia, the informal seed system is the dominant system for seed supply, accounting for 90% of the seed used by smallholder farmers [11].

During FGDs, experts and farmers explained the increasing trend in the coverage of land by improved seed over the past years. They also mentioned that most farmers are using seeds from the previous cropping season. Farmers also have experience using seeds from improved varieties for various production, marketing, and social merits. The land size is one of the determining factors when farmers decide how much-improved seed to use. Farm/plot size dynamism among producer farmers is the major cause of the variation in the use of improved bread wheat seed [28].

3.3 Common criteria used by farmers to choose improved bread wheat varieties

High-yielding potential and disease tolerance are the most commonly used selection criteria that farmers consider during variety selection, as mentioned by 39.5% and 34.9% of the respondents, respectively (Table 2). The criterion of the market value of the variety was mentioned by 16.3% of the respondents, whereas only 9.3% of the respondents considered the food quality trait of the variety. Earlier studies reported that yield and yield-related attributes of the crop (such as tillering ability, spike length, number of spikelets per spike, etc.) are the most common criteria that Ethiopian farmers prefer for the selection of improved bread wheat varieties [29]. During FGDs with experts and farmers, yield potential and disease tolerance attributes came out as the most important factors for the selection of improved bread varieties in the area. Farmers choose varieties that are tolerant to yellow rust. The variety currently under production in the area (i.e. Kakaba) has replaced the former wheat varieties, which became obsolete due to yellow rust. Grain yield and wheat rust (yellow rust and stem rust) tolerance are attributes that are desired most compared to other attributes [29, 30]. Varieties released through the formal seed system are designed for specific purposes such as yield, pest control, quality (e.g. nutrition), and suitability for mechanization [30]. Farmers have their own technological, social, and economic criteria for choosing and growing improved varieties of crops. These may include the biological nature of the crop, the external appearance of the crop (e.g. texture, color, etc.) and other social factors such as culture, religion, and beliefs.

Table 2 Most common criteria used by farmers for choosing specific bread wheat variety.
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3.4 Main factors for not using improved bread wheat seed

Table 3 depicts the responses to the top impeding factors that restrict farmers from using improved bread wheat varieties. About 44% of the respondents said the high seed price, which is unaffordable for low-income farmers, is the major factor. Nearly 27% of respondents mentioned that improved varieties are not available in the rural community, and 24% said the poor quality of seed from suppliers is a challenge. The unavailability of quality seed at the right place and time and poor promotion activities are important factors for the limited use of improved seed [12, 13]. Furthermore, limited choice of bread wheat varieties and seed sources, small land size per household, limited availability of fertilizers (i.e. amount and cost), absence of recommended pesticides, lack of an all-weather road for transportation, and limited and/or poor information channels about the technologies are some of the major factors raised during FGDs. Some of the factors are internal and are related to the perception and financial capabilities of the farming community, whereas others are external and farmers have no or little control over them, such as seed shortage, infrastructure development, working policies, and appropriate technology development by research institutes [28]. Farmers have their preferences for different varietal attributes, and their varietal demand is significantly affected by their perceptions [31].

Table 3 Factors for not using improved bread wheat seed.
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3.5 Seed sources for improved bread wheat varieties

The mechanisms by which farmers have accessed improved bread wheat varieties are presented in Table 4. Results revealed that farmers accessed certified seed only from one formal seed supplier (i.e., Amhara Seed Enterprise/ASE). Nearly 40% of the respondents accessed improved bread wheat seed from ASE, while the remaining 41.5%, 11.3% and 7.5% obtained it from their own saved seed (own stock), neighbors, and relatives, respectively. Discussions with local experts indicated that ASE is the major source of improved bread wheat seed in the area. The majority of farmers have relied on their own saved seed. This could be due to the crop’s self-pollinated nature, which allows for the possibility of maintaining seed quality over time. Experts said that ASE has been engaged in the production of a few cereal crops and varieties. In the district, the enterprise is producing only one bread wheat variety i.e. Kakaba. In Ethiopia, seed companies mainly focus on a few crops, particularly wheat and hybrid maize [21].

Table 4 Seed sources for improved bread wheat variety in the study area (2017/18).
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In general, the present study identified that farmers are accessing bread wheat seed through two seed systems, i.e., formal (39.6%) and informal (60.3%) seed sources. This is in line with the explanation made by farmers and experts during FGDs. They reported that depending on various internal factors (e.g., financial capabilities of farmers, farmers’ cropping calendar, individual varietal choice) and external factors (e.g., seed shortage, weather conditions, infrastructure development), farmers can access bread wheat seed either through formal or informal systems. This study did not identify the presence of an intermediate seed system in the area, which is characterized by an alternative seed system having both the features of formal and informal seed systems [11, 14, 32]. The study could not also identify the presence of private seed companies that are involved in the production and distribution of improved bread wheat seed directly to farmers. Previous research found that formal, informal, and intermediate seed systems coexist in the Ethiopian seed sector [11, 14, 33].

3.6 Frequency of buying certified bread wheat seed

As depicted in Fig. 2, most of the respondents (39.5%) purchase certified seed every 3 years, and about 30.2% purchase it every three to five years. The probable reason may be the reproductive nature of the crop, i.e., self-pollination, which helps farmers maintain the seed for years with”acceptable” seed quality. When the quality of the seed deteriorates and production decreases, farmers decide to replace the seed. In such cases, they approach formal seed suppliers to access the seed. According to the study, on average, farmers replace the seed every 3 years. Seed recycling is a common practice in many developing countries [34] to avoid the additional cost of purchasing fresh seeds and obtain a relatively stable yield across seasons [11, 35]. However, a few interviewees said that they have experience purchasing seeds every year or every 2 years. As cited by experts during FGDs, the main reason for frequent purchases (every year or every 2 years) is related to those farmers who are frequently engaging in contractual seed production arrangements with public seed enterprises. In such a contractual seed production scheme, the contracting party (ASE in the study area) is responsible for providing early-generation seeds (i.e., pre-basic and basic seeds) for farmers. Farmers (as out growers) must also produce good-quality seed under the technical supervision and support of the contracting party and must supply the product back to the contracting party in accordance with the agreement, with the provision of keeping a certain portion of the raw seed.

Fig. 2
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Source: Field survey (2017)

Respondents' buying frequency of improved bread wheat seed from formal suppliers. .

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3.7 Access and sources of information about improved bread wheat production technologies

Table 5 depicts 70.4% of the respondents have accessed information about fertilizer application, and nearly 68.5% about land preparation and seed rate, 62% about available improved bread wheat varieties, 33.3% about agrochemicals (pesticides) use, and 24.1% about post-harvest management. This shows the familiarization of farmers in the area with various bread wheat production technologies [36]. Discussions with experts revealed that several efforts have been made by the government and development partners to improve the knowledge and skills of farmers for various bread wheat production technologies. The government is trying to improve the agriculture extension system, through which farmers can get information about production technologies. Effective extension approaches can raise awareness among farmers regarding the merits of the improved seed being introduced in the farming system. In areas where the extension system is active, it is not difficult to organize the farming community into groups for training and other events and properly deliver information and provide technical support [37]. The Ethiopian agriculture extension system has been promoting new seeds to the farming community [34, 38].

Table 5 Distribution of the respondents according to their access to bread wheat production technologies.
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Farmers can access information regarding improved bread-wheat technologies through different information sources. Most farmers said that they are accessing information mainly from the existing extension services (Table 6). The formal agricultural extension service is the main source of information for new technologies [34, 38]. Nearly 90% of farmers access information about new technologies through formal agricultural extension services in the major bread-wheat-producing areas of Ethiopia [39]. However, the existing extension service could not provide enough information for most farmers about agrochemical use (Table 6). Farmers access information concerning agrochemicals (pesticides) and post-harvest management from their neighbors and relatives. The experience of gathering information from radio and television is limited as reported by a few respondents. In general, farmers are using multiple sources of information [40].

Table 6 Sources of information for improved bread wheat technologies.
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3.8 Seed security assessment

3.8.1 Extent of feeling secured for improved bread wheat seed

Respondents were asked whether they could rely on improved bread wheat seeds, which are supplied through formal channels. About 90% of the respondents said that they do not feel that they can always access seeds from suppliers, while the remaining 10% indicated that they are sure of accessing seeds of improved bread wheat varieties. Aside from the formal channel, farmers use a variety of other mechanisms to obtain seeds. These include exchanging crops with neighbors, relatives, and local markets giving, borrowing and purchasing in cash, and gifts. As reported by participants during FGDs, farmers usually access emergency seeds from local markets, neighbors and relatives whenever they lose their crop due to several factors. This shows that informal seed sources are playing a key role during the seed emergency.

The response of farmers on how they access seed to ensure their seed demand or ensure seed security is depicted in Table 7. Nearly all respondents said that their own saved seed and seed sources from neighbors are important mechanisms to guarantee seed availability and accessibility to the farming community. Moreover, as most respondents indicated, the local market is also an important source for seed availability and accessibility. Seed may be available to farmers using the existing socially constructed structures, i.e., social networks [18, 39] and from the government’s seed aid scheme. The contribution of formal seed sources is quite low in terms of availability and accessibility, as explained by 24% and 8% of the respondents, respectively. The possible reasons could be the inefficiency of the formal seed system to produce and supply seed on time and the weak production and distribution processes along the seed value chain [41]. The presence of different sources, such as seed-producing cooperatives, private seed companies, public entities, and NGOs may increase the availability of certified seed to the farming community [11].

Table 7 Perceptions of the respondents for key seed security elements in relation to seed channels.
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The highest percentage (65.7%) of the respondents said that seeds accessed through formal channels are good in quality (Table 7). The seed that is channeled through a formal seed system has passed through rigorous quality control procedures, unlike seeds channeled through an informal approach. Approximately 86.1% of respondents acknowledged the presence of low-quality seeds in the local market. Regarding appropriateness, the seed from the formal channel got the highest percentage (94.4%), followed by own saved (48.1%), neighbors (45.4%), and the local market (31.5%). Varietal appropriateness or suitability refers to the ability of farmers to access the seed of crop varieties that have the characteristics that they prefer [42]. As reported by farmers, they use different criteria to evaluate the appropriateness of the seed channeled through different seed sources, such as production potential, disease tolerance, and market value. The highest percentage for the formally channeled seed for appropriateness is due to the desirable attributes of the variety that was developed under research procedures.

3.8.2 Willingness of farmers to accept seed from formal sources

Farmers have their reasons for deciding whether or not to accept seed supplies through the formal channel. Around 72% of the respondents said that they are always willing to accept the seed from formal sources, whereas about 28% do not always show positive interest. 90% of the total respondents who were “always willing” to accept the seed from formal sources stated that the quality of the seed is the most important factor. Surprisingly, only 10% of them indicated that they accepted the seed because of ”external pressure”. As farmers explained during FGDs, the pressure might come from relatives, neighbors, or extension personnel through a strong social networks in the community. Farmers who said”not always willing” to accept the seed from formal sources mentioned poor quality, a high price, and late delivery as their reasons. The low quality and the late delivery from formal seed sources may reduce the adoption rate of the newly released or introduced bread wheat varieties. High seed prices, risks associated with newly introduced improved varieties, and insufficient extension packages are some of the reasons why farmers complain about the new varieties [30]. Some farmers may be enthusiastic about accepting new bread wheat varieties, while others may refuse, which is associated with the rate of adoption. A previous study shows that the rates of wheat adoption in Ethiopia are less than 50% [8].

3.9 Experts and farmers’ suggestions to improve seed access from seed sources

Farmers and local experts have been asked to reflect on their opinions and possible suggestions on how the existing seed systems could be strengthened for farmers to access seeds in a better way. In general, the suggestions from farmers mainly focus on tasks related to their day-to-day agricultural activities. On the other hand, the suggestions from experts related to the general seed value chain and the roles of actors in each node of the seed value chain, i.e., variety development, production, processing, marketing, and distribution. Moreover, practitioners (farmers and local experts) made specific suggestions and possible recommendations to improve the seed delivery mechanisms.

3.9.1 Suggestions to improve the seed access through informal seed system

Farmers’ most common and frequent suggestion is to concentrate on the linkage between farmers and other organizations in terms of seed access and marketing. This is implied by individual quotes such as “improve the seed diffusion in the area”, “consider local varieties with good attributes in the seed diffusion mechanism”, “promote and strengthen local seed marketing networks” etc. As most farmers pointed out that exchanging/marketing seeds of recycled improved varieties would help farmers to access the seed before planting time. Moreover, they emphasized the need for better farming practices to improve local seed production.

Experts’ suggestions emphasize strengthening farmers’ awareness of proper seed management methods, such as seed storage techniques, to keep the seed quality for quite a reasonable period. Experts also suggested the conservation of local cultivars that have a high yield, good quality, and other socially demanded attributes. This was referred to with quotes such as “conservation of local varieties in the area or gene bank,” “establishment of community-based seed conservation,” “conservation of the local cultivates to reduce the genetic erosion” etc. The formal seed system contributes only a small portion of the seed coverage in the country [17]. Hence, it is quite important to give much attention to designing strategies on how to use the local cultivars effectively. They also suggested strengthening the local seed dissemination mechanisms using the available local networks, like community-based organizations. In this regard, farmers and supporting organizations should work on identifying the local seed sources, the existing seed exchanging and marketing mechanisms, conservation methods, and better agronomic techniques to improve farmers’ access to seed through informal mechanisms.

3.9.2 Suggestions to improve the seed access through a formal seed system

The formal seed delivery mechanism is playing a key role in producing and promoting improved bread wheat varieties. Farmers suggested that the formal mechanism should bring alternative bread wheat varieties into their farming system to increase their bread wheat variety portfolios. They also appreciated the contribution of the formal mechanism by introducing a newly yellow rust-tolerant bread wheat variety in the area at a time when the previous varieties were susceptible and became obsolete. Moreover, they also emphasized the timely delivery of the seed because sometimes the seed arrives in the locality when the planting time is very near and even after planting. Farmers also consider that information about the quality of the seed and its market value should be provided in advance to decide whether to buy the seed. In this regard, local extension personnel could play a vital role in providing all the necessary information. Experts have suggested the formal seed system should design a demand-driven seed production strategy. They also mentioned that the affordable seed price for farmers, the timely supply of the seed, the effective seed distribution and collection mechanisms, and the provision of available information to farmers should be considered to improve seed access via the formal seed system. At a higher level, as experts suggested, the improvement of the bread wheat seed value chain starts from variety development in the breeding center to marketing through different channels. They also proposed revising and amending the existing contractual seed multiplication agreement between out-growers (i.e. farmers) and contracting parties (i.e. big seed enterprises), as there is sometimes price-setting disagreement. Promotion and distribution of various bread wheat varieties in line with farmers’ preferences could improve the availability and accessibility of the seed in the local context. Organizing field days, providing leaflets, and other promotion mechanisms could help farmers and local experts increase their awareness of various bread wheat production and marketing knowledge and skills, including the available bread wheat varieties suitable for the area, improved bread wheat seed production techniques, seed quality management, etc. Experts also mentioned the need to organize and support farmers into seed-producing groups or cooperatives so they can produce and sell the seed within the local market and beyond. The role of seed-producing cooperatives in improving the seed supply and marketing has been given due emphasis in various parts of the country and acknowledged in the seed system strategy of the country [11, 14]. Furthermore, experts emphasized the need to integrate the formal and informal seed systems, as both systems have their own specific merits for farmers to access quality seed [43]. Seed systems should be strengthened to increase seed availability to farmers and meet demand [44].

The Ethiopian seed sector development strategy acknowledged the key contribution of both the formal, informal and intermediate seed systems. This study confirmed the role of informal and formal seed sources to improve bread wheat seed access to farmers. Therefore, policymakers should design a mechanism to integrate both the formal and informal seed systems to improve the availability of seed to farmers.

4 Conclusions and recommendations

Farmers obtained seed through a variety of channels, including farm-saved from the previous cropping seasons, seed obtained from neighboring farmers usually in exchange for grain and in the form of a credit to be paid back in kind or cash after harvest, seed obtained from relatives, and seed obtained from formal seed suppliers. The informal seed sources are important in seed security mechanisms due to their better spatial and temporal availability than the formal sources. Yield advantage, disease tolerance, and market value are the most common criteria considered by farmers when deciding to use specific improved bread wheat varieties from formal suppliers. There are different bottlenecks, however, that hinder farmers from using improved bread wheat seed, including high prices, lack of availability in a timely manner, poor quality, and lack of credit access. These factors, among others, make farmers feel insecure about improved seeds from formal seed sources.

The study also confirms that both formal and informal seed sources are playing a vital role in improving seed access to farmers and, eventually, improving crop production. There is a need to design a mechanism to integrate both the formal and informal seed systems to improve seed accessibility and availability. Promoting community-based seed multiplication mechanisms by organizing farmers into seed-producing cooperatives could be a good approach to improving the seed supply. As seed-producing cooperatives have features from both formal and informal seed systems, they could play an important role in reducing the seed demand–supply gap and improving the income of the farmers and, ultimately, their livelihoods. The absence of competition among seed suppliers may sometimes reflect in the supply of poor-quality seed. Hence, there is a need to encourage seed suppliers (e.g., public and private seed suppliers) to get involved in the business and to introduce the concept of direct seed marketing, which is now being implemented in different parts of Ethiopia.