Abstract
Purpose
This paper presents an ultrasonic flexible linear array transducer prototype developed to be coupled directly over human body curvatures.
Methods
The transducer was made of a 2.25 MHz piezoelectric ceramic array and a curvature sensor, both encapsulated by a flexible passive rubber. The curvature sensor was built with strain gauges. A focal time-delay law was applied by using the positional information of each element of the array. In this way, beam distortions can be avoided, and the sensitivity of the transducer can be enhanced to improve images. A phantom of a fractured cortical bovine bone was constructed.
Results
The phantom was used to validate the transducer. The curvature sensor of the transducer was able to measure an unknown curvature to identify the correct position of the piezoelectric elements of the array.
Conclusion
The ultrasound images demonstrate that the transducer, once coupled to a curved surface, is able to detect and locate discontinuities of approximately 0.5–2 mm.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Angelsen BAJ, Torp H, Holm S, Kristoffersen K, Whittingham TA. Which transducer array is best? Eur J Ultrasound. 1995;2(2):151–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/0929-8266(95)00092-5.
ASTM. E1065-08. Standard guide for evaluating characteristics of ultrasonic search units. ASTM International. 2008.
Beltrame V, Stramare R, Rebellato N, Angelini F, Frigo AC, Rubaltelli L. Sonographic evaluation of bone fractures: a reliable alternative in clinical practice? Clin Imaging. 2012;36(3):203–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinimag.2011.08.013.
Casula O, Poidevin C, Cattiaux G, Fleury G, Dumas P. A Flexible phased array transducer for contact examination of components with complex geometry. 16th World Congress on Non Destructive Testing, Montreal, Canada, 2004.
Chan SS. Emergency beside ultrasound for the diagnosis of rib fractures. Am J Emerg Med. 2009;27(5):617–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2008.04.013.
Chatillon S, Cattiaux G, Serre M, Roy O. Ultrasonic non-destructive testing of pieces of complex geometry with a flexible phased array transducer. Ultrasonics. 2000;38(1):131–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-624X(99)00181-X.
Cross KP. Bedside ultrasound for pediatric long bone fractures. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2011;12(1):27–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpem.2010.12.002.
Cross KP, Warkentine FH, Kim IK, Gracely E, Paul RI. Bedside ultrasound diagnosis of clavicle fractures in the pediatric emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2010;17(7):687–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2010.00788.x.
Daft CMW. Conformable transducers for large-volume, operator-independent imaging. IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium Proceedings, pp.798–808, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1109/ULTSYM.2010.5936021.
De Jong N, Bom N, Souquet J, Faber G. Vibration modes, matching layers and grating lobes. Ultrasonics. 1985;23(4):176–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-624X(85)90027-7.
Evans JA, Tavakoli MB. Ultrasonic attenuation and velocity in bone. Phys Med Biol. 1990;35(10):1387–96.
Herren C, Sobottke R, Ringe MJ, Visel D, Graf M, Müller D, et al. Ultrasound-guided diagnosis of fractures of the distal forearm in children. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2015;101(4):501–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otsr.2015.02.010.
Hoffmann K. Applying the Wheatstone bridge circuit. HBM S1569–1.1 en, HBM, Darmstadt, Germany, http://www.hbm.com/fileadmin/mediapool/hbmdoc/technical/s1569.pdf, 1986.
Hopkins D, Neau G, Le Ber L. Advanced phased-array technologies for ultrasonic inspection of complex composite parts. International Workshop, Smart Materials, Structures and NDT in Aerospace Conference NDT, Montreal-Quebec Canada, 2011.
Hübner U, Schlicht WC, Outzen S, Barthel M, Halsband H. Ultrasound in the diagnosis of fractures in children. The bone and joint journal, British. 82, no. 8. 1170–1173, 2000. doi:https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.82B8.0821170.
Jin W, Yang DM, Kim HC, Ryu KN. Diagnostic values of sonography for assessment of sternal fractures compared with conventional radiography and bone scans. J Ultrasound Med. 2006;25(10):1263–8. https://doi.org/10.7863/jum.2006.25.10.1263.
Kino G. Acoustic waves: devices, imaging, and analog signal processing. Prentice hall, Englewood cliffs, NJ, Cap. 3. 154–317, 1987.
Lane CJL. The inspection of curved components using flexible ultrasonic arrays and shape sensing fibres. Case Stud Nondestruct Test Eval. 2014;1:13–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csndt.2014.03.003.
Mott PH, Dorgan JR, Roland CM. The bulk modulus and Poisson's ratio of “incompressible” materials. J Sound Vib. 2008;312(4):572–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2008.01.026.
Nassiri DK, Nicholas D, Hill CR. Attenuation of ultrasound in skeletal muscle. Ultrasonics. 1979;17(5):230–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-624X(79)90054-4.
Neri E, Barbi E, Rabach I, Zanchi C, Norbedo S, Ronfani L, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of ultrasonography for hand bony fractures in paediatric patients. Arch Dis Child. 2014;99(12):1087–90. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2013-305678.
Nickson C, Rippey J. Ultrasonography of sternal fractures. Australas J Ultrasound Med. 2011;14(4):6–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2205-0140.2011.tb00131.x.
Powell DJ, Hayward G. Flexible ultrasonic transducer arrays for non-destructive evaluation applications II: performance assessment of different array configurations. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control. 1996;43(3):393–402. https://doi.org/10.1109/58.489396.
Rowlands R, Rippey J, Tie S, Flynn J. Bedside ultrasound vs X-ray for the diagnosis of forearm fractures in children. J Emerg Med. 2017;52(2):208–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2016.10.013.
Sayers CM, Tait CE. Ultrasonic properties of transducer backings. Ultrasonics. 1984;22(2):57–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-624X(84)90022-2.
Schulz U, Nink M, Pfützner A, Schrezenmeir J, Beyer J, Schulz U. Architecture in cortical bone and ultrasound transmissiony velocity. Clin Rheumatol. 1993;12(3):364–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02231581.
Shung KK, Zippuro M. Ultrasonic transducers and arrays. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag. 1996;15(6):20–30. https://doi.org/10.1109/51.544509.
Von Ramm OT, Smith SW. Beam steering with linear arrays. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1983;30(8):438–52. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.1983.325149.
Wang H, Ritter T, Cao W, Shung KK. High frequency properties of passive materials for ultrasonic transducers. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control. 2001;48(1):78–84. https://doi.org/10.1109/58.895911.
Wang Z, Xue QT, Chen YQ, Shu Y, Tian H, Yang Y, et al. A flexible ultrasound transducer array with micro-machined bulk PZT. Sensors (Basel). 2015;15(2):2538–47. https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202538.
Whittingham TA. Medical diagnostic applications and sources. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. 2007;93(1):84–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2006.07.004.
Wilson EJ. Strain-gage instrumentation. Harris’ shock and vibration handbook, S, pp. 17.1–17.15, 1976.
Wolny WW. Application driven industrial development of piezoceramics. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2005;25(12):1971–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2005.03.221.
Wooh S-C, Shi Y. Influence of phased array element size on beam steering behavior. Ultrasonics. 1998;36:737–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-624X(97)00164-9.
Wooh S-C, Shi Y. Optimum beam steering of linear phased arrays. Wave Motion. 1999a;29(3):245–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2125(98)00039-0.
Wooh S-C, Shi Y. A simulation study of the beam steering characteristics for linear phased arrays. J Nondestruct Eval. 1999b;18(2):39–57. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022645204774.
Wu J. Determination of velocity and attenuation of shear waves using ultrasonic spectroscopy. J Acoust Soc Am. 1996;99(5):2871–5. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.414880.
Funding
The authors acknowledge CAPES, PETROBRAS, and FAPESP (grant #2017/13094-4) for their financial support to this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Oliveira, T.F., Pai, C.N., Matuda, M.Y. et al. Development of a 2.25 MHz flexible array ultrasonic transducer. Res. Biomed. Eng. 35, 27–37 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42600-019-00006-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42600-019-00006-1