Abstract
Trees provide a wide range of benefits and have the potential to meet the majority of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The study used different geospatial datasets of land, soil, climate and topography for modeling and mapping and identifying a potentially suitable area for trees in Nepal. Additionally, tree suitability categories and tree cover presence were examined in the existing agricultural landscape and in various ecological zones of Nepal to understand both dominance and trends. The overall analysis of land potentiality revealed that 18.9%, 12.8% and 68.3% of total land area are considered low (< 30%), medium (30–60%) and high (≥ 60%) suitability for trees, respectively. Nepal is broadly divided into three ecological zones, namely, Tarai (17%), hills (68%) and mountain (15%). Although about 68.6% of the Tarai region has over 80% tree suitability, the area retains 40.2% tree cover (> 10%). Similarly, 67.7% of the hilly land which has greater than 70% tree suitability has 49.2% tree cover (> 10%). The mountain regions retain snow cover most of the year, with undulating terrain, and have roughly 28.1% of the land with greater than 60% tree suitability and 22.9% tree cover (> 10%). The total agricultural area, including rainfed and irrigated croplands, was reported to be approximately 24% of the country’s total geographical landscape. One-third of this area comprises rainfed cropland; 83% of rainfed cropland areas exhibit over 60% tree suitability. The study prioritized/ranked 862 villages as having more than 80% of land suitable for trees; this could be harnessed for integrated agroforestry practices. The findings addressed one of the important research gaps of land potentiality toward tree suitability. Moreover, it supports one of Nepal’s National Agroforestry Policy goals which is the development, expansion and commercialization of agroforestry systems which would contribute to national prosperity.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ABN (2014) Agri-business in Nepal. https://naya.com.np/post/p1404999269000xhcd2. Accessed 10 Jun 2019
Ahmad F, Goparaju L (2017a) Geospatial approach for Agroforestry Suitability mapping: to Enhance Livelihood and Reduce Poverty, FAO based documented procedure (Case study of Dumka district, Jharkhand, India). Biosci Biotechnol Res Asia 14:651–665. https://doi.org/10.13005/bbra/2491
Ahmad F, Goparaju L (2017b) Land Evaluation in terms of Agroforestry Suitability, an approach to Improve Livelihood and Reduce Poverty: a FAO Based Methodology A Geospatial Solution: a case study of Palamu district, Jharkhand, India. Ecol Quest 25:67–84. https://doi.org/10.12775/EQ.2017.006
Ahmad F, Goparaju L, Qayum A (2017a) Agroforestry suitability analysis based upon nutrient availability mapping: a GIS based suitability mapping. AIMS Agric Food 2(2):201–220. https://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2017.2.201
Ahmad F, Goparaju L, Qayum A (2017b) FAO guidelines and geospatial application for agroforestry suitability mapping: case study of Ranchi, Jharkhand state of India. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-017-0145-y
Ahmad F, Uddin MM, Goparaju L (2018) Agroforestry suitability mapping of India: geospatial approach based on FAO guidelines. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0233-7
Ali SA, Ahmad A (2019) Spatial susceptibility analysis of vector-borne diseases in KMC using geospatial technique and MCDM approach. Model Earth Syst Environ 5:1135–1159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-019-00586-y
Bagherzadeh A, Ghadiri E, Souhani Darban A, Gholizadeh A (2016) Land suitability modeling by parametric-based neural networks and fuzzy methods for soybean production in a semi-arid region. Model Earth Syst Environ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-016-0152-4
Bayala J, Dayamba SD, Ayantunde AA, Somda J, Ky-Dembele C, Bationo BA, Buah S, Sanogo D, Tougiani A, Zougmore R (2018) METHODOLOGICAL GUIDE: community participatory inventory and prioritization of climate smart crop-livestock-agroforestry technologies/practices. ICRAF Technical Manual. World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi
Bentrup G, Leininger T (2002) Agroforestry: mapping the way with GIS. J Soil Water Conserv 57:148–153. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_bentrup005.pdf. Accessed 6 Sep 2019
Birhanu BZ, Traore K, Gumma MK, Badolo F, Tabo R, Whitbread AM (2018) A watershed approach to managing rainfed agriculture in the semiarid region of southern Mali: integrated research on water and land use. Environ Dev Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0144-9
CBS (2018) Statistical year book of Nepal 2017. Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. https://www.stat.go.jp/info/meetings/nepal/pdf/pre01.pdf. Accessed 5 Oct 2019
Chen Q, Lu D, Keller M, Dos-Santos MN, Bolfe EL, Feng Y, Wang C (2016) Modeling and mapping agroforestry aboveground biomass in the Brazilian Amazon using Airborne Lidar Data. Remote Sens 8(1):21. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8010021
Das AN, Oli BN (2001) Tree growing practices on farm land: an option for sustaining rural livelihoods. Banko Janakari 11(2):8–12
DFRS (2015) State of Nepal's Forests. Department of Forest Research and Survey. Kathmandu, Nepal. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337830789_STATE_of_NEPAL'S_FORESTS. Accessed 10 Sep 2019
Dhakal A, Cockfield G, Maraseni TN (2012) Evolution of agroforestry based farming systems: a study of Dhanusha District, Nepal. Agroforest Syst 86:17–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-012-9504-x
Ellis EA, Bentrup G, Schoeneberger MM (2004) Computer-based tools for decision support in agroforestry: current state and future needs. Agroforest Syst 61(1):401–421. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AGFO.0000029015.64463.65
FAO (1976) A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. ISBN 92-5-100111-1. https://www.fao.org/3/x5310e/x5310e00.htm. Accessed 10 Jun 2018
Fick SE, Hijmans RJ (2017) Worldclim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. Int J Climatol 37:4302–4315. https://worldclim.org/version2. Accessed on 10 Jun 2019
Finlayson R (2019) How to grow a national agroforestry policy. https://www.worldagroforestry.org/blog/2019/09/23/how-grow-national-agroforestry-policy. Accessed 10 Dec 2019
Fischer G, Nachtergaele F, Prieler S, van Velthuizen HT, Verelst L, Wiberg D (2008) Global Agro-ecological Zones Assessment for Agriculture (GAEZ 2008). IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria and FAO, Rome, Italy. https://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-survey/soil-maps-and-databases/harmonized-world-soil-database-v12/soil-qualities-data/en/. Accessed 10 Jun 2018
FRA (2000) Forest resources of Nepal. https://www.fao.org/3/ae154e/AE154E04.htm. Accessed 10 Sep 2019
Gangadharappa NR, Shivamurthy M, Ganesamoorthi S (2003) Agroforestry—a viable alternative for social, economic and ecological sustainability. https://www.fao.org/3/XII/0051-B5.htm. Accessed 4 Sep 2019
Gilmour DA, Nurse MC (1991) Farmer initiatives in increasing tree cover in central Nepal. Mt Res Dev 11(4):329–337
GoN (2000) Nepal: Ecological Zone Map https://reliefweb.int/map/nepal/nepal-ecological-zone-map-2000. Accessed 10 Sep 2018
GoN (2019a) Economic survey (2018/19) Ministry of Finance. Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. https://mof.gov.np/uploads/document/file/compiled%2520economic%2520Survey%2520english%25207-25_20191111101758.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar 2020
GoN (2019b) National Agroforestry Policy 2019. Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. https://www.moald.gov.np. Accessed 10 Mar 2020
Goparaju L, Ahmad F, Uddin M, Rizvi J (2020) Agroforestry: an effective multi-dimensional mechanism for achieving Sustainable Development Goals. Ecol Quest. https://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/EQ/article/view/EQ.2020.023. Accessed 30 June 2020
Hansen MC, Potapov PV, Moore R, Hancher M, Turubanova SA, Tyukavina A, Thau D, Stehman SV, Goetz SJ, Loveland TR, Kommareddy A, Egorov A, Chini L, Justice CO, Townshend JRG (2013) High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 342:850–53. https://earthenginepartners.appspot.com/science-2013-global-forest. Accessed 20 Sep 2019
ICRAF (2017) Corporate Strategy 2017–2026 https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/RP17128.pdf. Accessed 10 Sep 2019
Kumar BM, Singh AK, Dhyani SK (2012) South Asian agroforestry: traditions, transformations, and prospects. In: Nair PKR, Garrity D (eds) Agroforestry—the future of global land use, advances in agroforestry 9. Springer, New York, pp 359–389
Leakey RB, Tchoundjeu Z, Schreckenberg K, Shackleton SE (2005) Tree products (AFTPs): targeting poverty reduction & enhanced livelihoods. Int J Agric Sustain 3(1):1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2005.9684741
Meneses-Tovar CL (2011) NDVI as indicator of degradation. https://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2560e/i2560e07.pdf. Accessed 3 Sep 2019
Moulatlet GM, Zuquim G, Figueiredo FOG, Lehtonen S, Emilio T, Ruokolainen K, Tuomisto H (2017) Using digital soil maps to infer edaphic affinities of plant species in Amazonia: problems and prospects. Ecol Evol 7:8463–8477. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3242
Nachtergaele F, Velthuizen HV, Verelst L (2009) Harmonized world soil database. (version 1.1). FAO, Rome
Nair PKR (2011) Agroforestry systems and environmental quality: introduction. J Environ Qual 40(3):784–790. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2011.0076
Nair PKR, Garrity D (2012) Agroforestry–the future of global land use, advances in agroforestry, vol 9. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4676-3
NTB (2020) Climate of Nepal. https://www.welcomenepal.com/plan-your-trip/climate.html. Accessed 10 Sep 2019
Oli BN, Treue T, Larsen HO (2015) Socio-economic determinants of growing trees on farms in the middle hills of Nepal. Agrofor Syst 89(5):765–777
Pandit BH, Shrestha KK, Bhattarai SS (2014) Sustainable local livelihoods through enhancing agroforestry systems in Nepal. J For Livelihood 12(1):47–63
Pinho RC, Miller RP, Alfaia SS (2012) Agroforestry and the improvement of soil fertility: a view from Amazonia. Appl Environ Soil Sci. 2012:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/616383
Pokhrel C (2016) Assessment of plant diversity in homegardens of three ecological zones of Nepal. Ecoprint Int J Ecol 22:63–74. https://doi.org/10.3126/eco.v22i0.15472
Reisner Y, de Filippi R, Herzog F, Palma J (2007) Target regions for silvoarable agroforestry in Europe. Ecol Eng 29:401–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2006.09.020
Reppin S, Kuyah S, de Neergaard A, Oelofse M, Rosenstock TS (2019) Contribution of agroforestry to climate change mitigation and livelihoods in Western Kenya. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00383-7
Ritung S, Wahyunto AF, Hidayat H (2007) Land suitability evaluation with a case map of Aceh Barat District. Indonesian Soil Research Institute and World Agroforestry Centre, Bogor (ISBN: 979-3198-36-1)
Talukdar NR, Choudhury P, Ahmad F, Ahmed R, Ahmad F, Al-Razi H (2020) Habitat suitability of the Asiatic elephant in the trans-boundary Patharia Hills Reserve Forest, northeast India. Model Earth Syst Environ 6:1951–1961. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-020-00805-x
Trabucco A, Zomer RJ (2009) Global Aridity Index (Global-Aridity) and Global Potential Evapo-Transpiration (Global-PET) Geospatial Database. CGIAR Consortium for Spatial Information. Published online, available from the CGIAR-CSI GeoPortal. https://cgiarcsi.community/data/global-aridity-and-pet-database/. Accessed 11 Aug 2019
Turner-Skoff J, Cavender N (2019) The benefits of trees for livable and sustainable communities. Plants People Planet. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.39
Zomer RJ, Trabucco A, Coe R, Place F (2009) Trees on Farms: Analysis of the Global Extent and Geographical Patterns of Agroforestry; ICRAF Working Paper No. 89; World Agroforestry Centre: Nairobi, Kenya. https://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/WP16263.pdf. Accessed 10 Aug 2019
Funding
No funding in any form has been received by any of the authors for the current work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or with animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed consent
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ahmad, F., Uddin, M.M., Goparaju, L. et al. Tree suitability modeling and mapping in Nepal: a geospatial approach to scaling agroforestry. Model. Earth Syst. Environ. 7, 169–179 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-020-00922-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-020-00922-7