Abstract
Using data from a cross-sectional sample of seventh to twelfth graders who attended northeastern schools between 2011 and 2012, we examined the associations between psycho-emotional dating violence and cyber, physical, and sexual violence Overall, we found that respondents experienced more than one type of dating violence simultaneously, indicating the prevalence of co-occurrence in dating violence. Further, being a victim of psycho-emotional violence was associated with perpetrating similar types of violence, suggesting the bidirectional nature of this type of aggression. Among the covariates, we found that peer bullying, cyber bullying, cell phone usage, the respondents’ age, gender, and grades were risk factors for psycho-emotional violence. The findings may be used to guide dating violence intervention efforts and the development of school based and family-oriented treatment plans.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adamo, C. (2014). Young people and dating violence: Teaching healthy relationship skills to protect health and well-being. Retrieved from http://advocatesforyouth.org/storage/advfy/documents/Factsheets/young%20people%20and%20dating%20violence.pdf.
Anderson, J. F., & Kras, K. (2007). Revisiting Albert Bandura’s social learning theory to better understand and assist victims of intimate personal violence. Women & Criminal Justice, 17(1), 99–124.
Baker, C. K., & Carreño, P. K. (2016). Understanding the role of technology in adolescent dating and dating violence. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(1), 308–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0196-5.
Barreira, A. K., de Lima, M. L. C., Bigras, M., Njaine, K., & Assis, S. G. (2014). Directionality of physical and psychological dating violence among adolescents in Recife, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia, 17(01), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1590/1415-790X201400010017ENG.
Bennett, D. C., Guran, E. L., Ramos, M. C., & Margolin, G. (2011). College students’ electronic victimization in friendships and dating relationships: Anticipated distress and associations with risky behaviors. Violence & Victims, 26(4), 410–429.
Borrajo, E., Gámez-Guadix, M., & Calvete, E. (2015a). Cyber dating abuse: Prevalence, context, and relationship with offline dating aggression. Psychological Reports, 116(2), 565–585. https://doi.org/10.2466/21.16.PR0.116k22w4.
Borrajo, E., Gámez-Guadix, M., Pereda, N., & Calvete, E. (2015b). The development and validation of the cyber dating abuse questionnaire among young couples. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 358–365.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017a). Intimate partner violence: Definitions. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/definitions.html.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017b). Prevent bullying. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/features/prevent-bullying/index.html.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017c). Preventing intimate partner violence. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/ipv-factsheet.pdf.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018a). Sexual violence: Definitions. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/definitions.html.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018b). Teen dating violence. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/intimatepartnerviolence/teen_dating_violence.html.
Chaplin, T. M. (2015). Gender and emotion expression: A developmental contextual perspective. Emotion Review: Journal of the International Society for Research on Emotion, 7(1), 14–21.
Child Trends. (2015). Dating: Indicators of child and youth well-being. Retrieved from https://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/73_Dating-1.pdf.
Comrey, A., & Lee, H. (1992). A first course in factor analysis. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishing.
Connolly, J., McIsaac, C., Shulman, S., Wincentak, K., Joly, L., Heifetz, M., & Bravo, V. (2014). Development of romantic relationships in adolescence and emerging adulthood: Implications for community mental health. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 33(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.7870/cjcmh-2014-002.
Dake, J. A., Price, J. H., & Telljohann, S. K. (2003). The nature and extent of bullying at school. Journal of School Health, 73(5), 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2003.tb03599.x.
Dick, R. N., McCauley, H. L., Jones, K. A., Tancredi, D. J., Goldstein, S., Blackburn, S., ... Miller, E. (2014). Cyber dating abuse among teens using school-based health centers. Pediatrics, 134(6), e1560–e1567.
Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied missing data. New York: The Guilford Press.
Eshelman, L., & Levendosky, A. A. (2012). Dating violence: Mental health consequences based on type of abuse. Violence and Victims, 27(2), 215–228.
Exner-Cortens, D., Eckenrode, J., & Rothman, E. (2012). Longitudinal associations between teen dating violence victimization and adverse health outcomes. Pediatrics, 131(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-1029.
Fernández-Fuertes, A. A., & Fuertes, A. (2010). Physical and psychological aggression in dating relationships of Spanish adolescents: Motives and consequences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 183–191.
Foshee, V. A., Benefield, T. S., Ennett, S. T., Bauman, K. E., & Suchindran, C. (2004). Longitudinal predictors of serious physical and sexual dating violence victimization during adolescence. Preventive Medicine, 39(5), 1007–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.04.014.
Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Linder, F., Rice, J., & Wilcher, R. (2007). Typologies of adolescent dating violence: Identifying typologies of adolescent dating violence perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(5), 498–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506298829.
Foshee, V. A., Karriker-Jaffe, K. F., Reyes, H. L. M., Ennett, S. T., Suchindran, C., Bauman, K. E., & Benefield, T. S. (2008). What accounts for demographic differences in trajectories of adolescent dating violence?: An examination of intrapersonal and contextual mediators. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42(6), 596–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.11.005.
Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., & Turner, H. (2012). Teen dating violence: Co-occurrence with other victimizations in the National Survey of Children’s exposure to violence (NatSCEV). Psychology of Violence, 2(2), 111–124.
Harper, F. W. K., Austin, A. G., Cercone, J. J., & Arias, I. (2005). The role of shame, anger, and affect regulation in men’s perpetration of psychological abuse in dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(12), 1648–1662. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505278717.
Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2015). Beyond the “sext”: Technology facilitated sexual violence and harassment against adult women. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 48(1), 104–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004865814524218anj.sagepub.com.
Hertzog, J. L., Harpel, T., & Rowley, R. (2016). Is it bullying, teen dating violence, or both? Student, school staff, and parent perceptions. Children & Schools, 38(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdv037.
Hipwell, A. E., Stepp, S. D., Keenan, K., Allen, A., Hoffmann, A., Rottingen, L., & McAloon, R. (2013). Examining links between sexual risk behaviors and dating violence involvement as a function of sexual orientation. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 26(4), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2013.03.002.
Jouriles, E. N., Garrido, E., Rosenfield, D., & McDonald, R. (2009). Experiences of psychological and physical aggression in adolescent romantic relationships: Links to psychological distress. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(7), 451–460.
Kaukinen, C., Gover, A. R., & Hartman, J. L. (2012). College women’s experiences of dating violence in casual and exclusive relationships. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(2), 146–162.
Keith, T. Z. (2015). Multiple regression and beyond: An introduction to multiple regression and structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Khurana, A., Bleakley, A., Jordan, A. B., & Romer, D. (2015). The protective effects of parental monitoring and internet restriction on adolescents' risk of online harassment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(5), 1039–1047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0242-4.
Kimball, E. (2016). Edleson revisited: Reviewing children’s witnessing of domestic violence 15 years later. Journal of Family Violence, 31(5), 625–637.
Kirchner, L. (2013). The shocking level of dating violence among teens and adolescents. Retrieved from https://psmag.com/social-justice/dating-violence-among-teens-and-adolescents-is-surprisingly-common-63812.
Konasani, V. R., & Kadre, S. (2015). Multiple regression analysis. In S. Kadre & V. R. Konasani (Eds.), Practical business analytics using SAS (pp. 351–399). Berkeley: Apress.
Lancer, D. (2017). Forms of emotional and verbal abuse you may be overlooking: Most emotional abuse goes unnoticed and unreported. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/toxic-relationships/201704/forms-emotional-and-verbal-abuse-you-may-be-overlooking.
Lareau, A. (2011). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Lenhart, A. (2015). Teen, social media and technology overview 2015. Retrieved from http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2015/04/PI_TeensandTech_Update2015_0409151.pdf.
Lenhart, A., & Madden, M. (2007). Teens, privacy and online social networks: Internet use and teens’ computing environments. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2007/04/18/internet-use-and-teens-computing-environments/.
Lenhart, A., Madden, M., Smith, A., Purcell, K., Zickurh, K., & Rainie, L. (2011). Teens, kindness and cruelty on social network sites. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center’s Internet and American Life Project.
Lenhart, A., Anderson, M., & Smith, A. (2015a). Chapter 1: Basics of teen romantic relationships. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/10/01/basics-of-teen-romantic-relationships/.
Lenhart, A., Smith, A., & Anderson, M. (2015b). Teens, technology and romantic relationships: From flirting to breaking up, social media and mobile phones are woven into teens’ romantic lives. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015/10/PI_2015-10-01_teens-technology-romance_FINAL.pdf.
Moore, T. M., Stuart, G. L., Meehan, J. C., Rhatigan, D. L., Hellmuth, J., & Keen, S. (2008). Drug use and aggression between intimate partners: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(2), 247–274.
Morelli, M., Bianchi, D., Chirumbolo, A., & Baiocco, R. (2018). The cyber dating violence inventory. Validation of a new scale for online perpetration and victimization among dating partners. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(4), 464–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2017.1305885.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Student reports of bullying: Results from the 2015 School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCES 2017–015). Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017015.pdf.
National Center for Victims of Crime. (2012). Bulletins for teens: Dating violence. Retrieved from http://victimsofcrime.org/help-for-crime-victims/get-help-bulletins-for-crime-victims/bulletins-for-teens/dating-violence.
National Institute of Justice. (2016). Prevalence of teen dating violence. Retrieved from https://www.nij.gov/topics/crime/intimate-partner-violence/teen-dating-violence/pages/prevalence.aspx.
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. (2018). Online abuse: Signs, indicators and effects. Retrieved from https://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/child-abuse-and-neglect/online-abuse/signs-symptoms-effects/.
Norona, J. C., Roberson, P. N. E., & Welsh, D. P. (2017). “I learned things that make me happy, things that bring me down”: Lessons from romantic relationships in adolescence and emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 32(2), 155–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558415605166.
Office on Women’s Health. (2018). Effects of domestic violence on children. Retrieved from https://www.womenshealth.gov/relationships-and-safety/domestic-violence/effects-domestic-violence-children.
Ortega, R., Elipe, P., Mora-Merchán, J. A., Calmaestra, J., & Vega, E. (2009). The emotional impact on victims of traditional bullying and cyberbullying: A study of Spanish adolescents. Journal of Psychology, 217(4), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.197.
Paat, Y.-F. (2011). The link between financial strain, interparental discord and children’s antisocial behaviors. Journal of Family Violence, 26(3), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-010-9354-0.
PACER’s National Bullying Prevention Center. (2017). Bullying statistics. Retrieved from http://www.pacer.org/bullying/resources/stats.asp.
Patchin, J. W. (2016). Summary of our cyberbullying research (2004–2016). Retrieved from https://cyberbullying.org/summary-of-our-cyberbullying-research.
Reijntjes, A., Kamphuis, J. H., Prinzie, P., & Telch, M. J. (2010). Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(4), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.009.
Reyes, H. L. M., Foshee, V. A., Klevens, J., Tharp, A. T., Chapman, M. V., Chen, M. S., & Ennett, S. T. (2016). Familial influences on dating violence victimization among Latino youth. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25(8), 773–792. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2016.1210270.
Roksa, J., & Potter, D. (2011). Parenting and academic achievement intergenerational transmission of educational advantage. Sociology of Education, 84, 299–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040711417013.
Ross, H., & Howe, N. (2009). Family influences on children's peer relationships. In K. H. Rubin, W. M. Bukowski, & B. Laursen (Eds.), Social, emotional, and personality development in context: Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 508–527). New York: Guilford Press.
Sabina, C., & Cuevas, C. (2013). The experience of dating violence among Latino adolescents. Retrieved from http://www.preventconnect.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/DAVILA-General-Population-Report.pdf.
Sackett, L. A., & Saunders, D. G. (2001). The impact of different forms of psychological abuse on battered women. In K. D. O’Leary & R. D. Maiuro (Eds.), Psychological abuse in violent domestic relations (pp. 197–212). New York: Springer.
Schmitt, D. P. (2015). Are women more emotional than men? Women’s negative emotionality as experienced around the world. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sexual-personalities/201504/are-women-more-emotional-men.
Sears, H. A., Byers, E. S., & Price, L. (2007). The co-occurrence of adolescent boys’ and girls’ use of psychologically, physically, and sexually abusive behaviours in their dating relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 30(3), 487–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.05.002.
Shaffer, C. M., Corona, R., Sullivan, T. N., Fuentes, V., & McDonald, S. E. (2018). Barriers and supports to dating violence communication between Latina adolescents and their mothers: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 33(2), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-017-9936-1.
Shapiro, L. A. S., & Margolina, G. (2014). Growing up wired: Social networking sites and adolescent psychosocial development. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0135-1.
Shorey, R. C., Brasfield, H., Zucosky, H., Febres, J., & Stuart, G. L. (2015). The relation between alcohol use and psychological, physical, and sexual dating violence perpetration among male college students. Violence Against Women, 21(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801214564689.
Smith, M., & Segal, J. (2018). Domestic violence and abuse: Recognizing the signs of an abusive relationship and getting help. Retrieved from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/abuse/domestic-violence-and-abuse.htm?pdf=true.
Smith, K., Cénat, J. M., Lapierre, A., Dion, J., Hébert, M., & Côté, K. (2018). Cyber dating violence: Prevalence and correlates among high school students from small urban areas in Quebec. Journal of Affective Disorders, 234, 220–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.043.
Spriggs, A. L., Halpern, C. T., Herring, A. H., & Schoenbach, V. J. (2009). Family and school socioeconomic disadvantage: Interactive influences on adolescent dating violence victimization. Social Science & Medicine, 68(11), 1956–1965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.015.
Stephenson, V. L., Wickham, B. M., & Capezza, N. M. (2018). Psychological abuse in the context of social media. Violence and Gender, 5(3), 129–134. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2017.0061.
StopBullying.gov. (n.d.). Effects of bullying. Retrieved from https://www.stopbullying.gov/at-risk/effects/index.html.
Strickland, A. (2015). Bullying by peers has effects later in life. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2015/05/08/health/bullying-mental-health-effects/index.html.
Swan, S. C., Gambone, L. J., Caldwell, J. E., Sullivan, T. P., & Snow, D. L. (2008). A review of research on women’s use of violence with male intimate partners. Violence & Victims, 23(3), 301–314.
Taylor, K. A., & Sullivan, T. N. (2017). Bidirectional relations between dating violence victimization and substance use in a diverse sample of early adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence., 088626051773131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517731312.
Temple, J. R., Choi, H. J., Elmquist, J., Hecht, M., Miller-Day, M., Stuart, G. L., et al. (2016). Psychological abuse, mental health, and acceptance of dating violence among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(2), 197–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.03.034.
UNICEF. (n.d.). Behind closed doors: The impact of domestic violence on children. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/media/files/BehindClosedDoors.pdf.
Ureña, J., Romera, E. M., Casas, J. A., Viejo, C., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2015). Psychometrics properties of psychological dating violence questionnaire: A study with young couples. International Journal of Clinical and Health, 15(1), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2014.07.002.
van de Bongardt, D., Yu, R., Deković, M., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2015). Romantic relationships and sexuality in adolescence and young adulthood: The role of parents, peers, and partners. Journal European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12(5), 497–515. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1068689.
Van Ouytsel, J., Ponnet, K., Walrave, M., & Temple, J. R. (2016). Adolescent cyber dating abuse victimization and its associations with substance use, and sexual behaviors. Public Health, 135, 147–151.
Van Ouytsel, J., Torres, E., Choi, H. J., Ponnet, K., Walrave, M., & Temple, J. R. (2017). The associations between substance use, sexual behaviors, bullying, deviant behaviors, health, and cyber dating abuse perpetration. The Journal of School Nursing, 33(2), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840516683229.
Wang, R., Bianchi, S. M., & Raley, S. B. (2005). Teenagers’ internet use and family rules: A research note. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1249–1258.
Wolke, D., & Lereya, S. T. (2015). Long-term effects of bullying. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 100(9), 879–885.
Yahner, J., Dank, M., Zweig, J. M., & Lachman, P. (2015). The co-occurrence of physical and cyber dating violence and bullying among teens. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(7), 1079–1089. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514540324.
youth.gov. (n.d.). Prevalence. Retrieved from https://youth.gov/youth-topics/teen-dating-violence/prevalence.
Zweig, J. M., & Dank, M. (2013). Teen dating abuse and harassment in the digital world: Implications for prevention and intervention. Retrieved from https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/23326/412750-Teen-Dating-Abuse-and-Harassment-in-the-Digital-World.PDF.
Zweig, J. M., & Dank, M. (2016). Technology, Teen Dating Violence and Abuse, and Bullying in Three States, 2011-2012. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor]. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR34741.v1.
Zweig, J. M., Dank, M., Lachman, P., & Yahner, J. (2013a). Technology, teen dating violence and abuse, and bullying. Washington DC: Urban Institute.
Zweig, J. M., Dank, M., Yahner, J., & Lachman, P. (2013b). The rate of cyber dating abuse among teens and how it relates to other forms of teen dating violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(7), 1063–1077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9922-8.
Zweig, J. M., Lachman, P., Yahner, J., & Dank, M. (2014). Correlates of cyber dating abuse among teens. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(8), 1306–1321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0047-x.
Funding
This study effort was supported by the UTEP BUILDing SCHOLARS NIH Award # RL5GM118969.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This manuscript has not been published elsewhere and it has not been submitted simultaneously for publication elsewhere.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Paat, YF., Markham, C. & Peskin, M. Psycho-Emotional Violence, Its Association, Co-Occurrence, and Bidirectionality with Cyber, Physical and Sexual Violence. Journ Child Adol Trauma 13, 365–380 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-019-00283-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-019-00283-z