Abstract
Behavior analytic interventions for people with disabilities often rely on implementation by novice caregivers and staff. However, behavior intervention documents are ineffective at evoking the level of performance needed for behavior change, and intensive training is often needed (Dogan et al., 2017; Ward-Horner & Sturmey, 2012). The cost and time requirements of intensive training may not be viable options for some clients, leading to nonadherence or attrition (Raulston et al., 2019). In addition, others may feel that prescribed interventions are not appropriate or will not work (Moore & Symons, 2011). These barriers may reflect a cultural mismatch (Rathod et al., 2018). One potential way to increase efficacy of intervention materials is to improve the cultural sensitivity and comprehensibility of these documents. Although the body of research on cultural adaptation of behavioral interventions is becoming more robust, adaptation of behavior intervention documents as a means to create effective behavior change when cultural and linguistic diversity are factors, is an area of behavior analytic practice that is not well researched and there remains a need for cultural humility. Because diversity can include expansive differences between individuals, such as race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religion, gender and sexuality; understanding and adapting to each of these areas may be best done through separate reviews. It is the intent of this article to focus on ethnic diversity in the United States as a starting point and frame of reference for cultural adaptation. This tutorial includes tips learned from health communication research to give step-by-step guidance on creating comprehensible, culturally adapted intervention plans through the example of training for parents of autistic children.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Not Applicable.
Data availability
Not Applicable.
References
Alizadeh, S., & Chavan, M. (2016). Cultural competence dimensions and outcomes: A systematic review of the literature. Health & Social Care in the Community, 24(6), e117–e130. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12293
Allen, K. D., & Warzak, W. J. (2000). The problem of parental nonadherence in clinical behavior analysis: Effective treatment is not enough. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33(3), 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-373
Barrera, M., Castro, F. G., Strycker, L. A., & Toobert, D. J. (2013). Cultural adaptations of behavioral health interventions: A progress report. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 81(2), 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027085
Becerra, T. A., von Ehrenstein, O. S., Heck, J. E., Olsen, J., Arah, O. A., Jeste, S. S., Rodriguez, M., & Ritz, B. (2014). Autism spectrum disorders and race, ethnicity, and nativity: A population-based study. Pediatrics, 134(1), e63–e71. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3928
Behavior Analyst Certification Board [BACB]. (2014). Professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. BACB.com. https://www.bacb.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/BACB-Compliance-Code-english_190318.pdf
Benuto, L. T., Singer, J., Gonzalez, F., Casas, J., & Ruork, A. (2021). How do clinicians define cultural sensitivity?: A mixed methods study. International Journal of Mental Health, 50(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2020.1830611
Bernal, G., & Adames, C. (2017). Cultural adaptations: Conceptual, ethical, contextual, and methodological issues for working with ethnocultural and majority-world populations. Prevention Science: The Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research, 18(6), 681–688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0806-0
Brodhead, M. T., Durán, L., & Bloom, S. E. (2014). Cultural and linguistic diversity in recent verbal behavior research on individuals with disabilities: A review and implications for research and practice. Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 30(1), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-014-0009-8
Burkett, K., Morris, E., Manning-Courtney, P., Anthony, J., & Shambley-Ebron, D. (2015). African American families on autism diagnosis and treatment: The influence of culture. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 45(10), 3244–3254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2482-x
Butow, P., Brindle, E., McConnell, D., Boakes, R., & Tattersall, M. (1998). Information booklets about cancer: Factors influencing patient satisfaction and utilization. Patient Education and Counseling, 33(2), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0738-3991(97)00071-2
Catagnus, R., Simpson, M., Grant, H., & Rock, D. (2020). The FACT model: A framework for managing cognitive capacity. Corporate Membership. https://membership.neuroleadership.com/material/the-fact-model-a-framework-for-managing-cognitive-capacity/
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention [CDC]. (2009). Simply put: A guide for creating easy-to-understand materials (9th ed.). https://www.cdc.gov/healthliteracy/pdf/simply_put.pdf
Choi, J. (2012). Development and pilot test of pictograph-enhanced breast health-care instructions for community-residing immigrant women. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 18(4), 373–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-172X.2012.02051.x
Christensen, D. L., Braun, K. V. N., Baio, J., Bilder, D., Charles, J., Constantino, J. N., Daniels, J., Durkin, M. S., Fitzgerald, R. T., Kurzius-Spencer, M., Lee, L.-C., Pettygrove, S., Robinson, C., Schulz, E., Wells, C., Wingate, M. S., Zahorodny, W., & Yeargin-Allsopp, M. (2018). Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2012. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 65(13), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6513a1
Coard, S. I., Wallace, S. A., & Stevenson, H. C. J. (2004). Towards culturally relevant preventive interventions: The consideration of racial socialization in parent training with African American families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 13(3), 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JCFS.0000022035.07171.f8
Danforth, J. S. (2000). The outcome of parent training using the behavior management flow chart with a mother and her twin boys with oppositional defiant disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 21(4), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1300/J019v21n04_04
Davis, R. E., Peterson, K. E., Rothschild, S. K., & Resnicow, K. (2011). Pushing the envelope for cultural appropriateness: Does evidence support cultural tailoring in type 2 diabetes interventions for Mexican American adults? The Diabetes Educator, 37(2), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145721710395329
Deardorf, D. K. (2020). Manual for developing intercultural competencies: Story circles. UNESCO Digital Library. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000370336?locale=en.
Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health: A report of the surgeon general. U.S. Public Health Service. Retrieved from https://lccn.loc.gov/2002495357
Di Noia, J., Furst, G., Park, K., & Byrd-Bredbenner, C. (2013). Designing culturally sensitive dietary interventions for African Americans: Review and recommendations. Nutrition Reviews, 71(4), 224–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/nure.12009
Dogan, R. K., King, M. L., Fischetti, A. T., Lake, C. M., Mathews, T. L., & Warzak, W. J. (2017). Parent-implemented behavioral skills training of social skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50(4), 805–818. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.411
Fong, E. H., & Tanaka, S. (2013). Multicultural alliance of behavior analysis standards for cultural competence in behavior analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation & Therapy, 8(2), 17–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100970
Foronda, C., Baptiste, D.-L., Reinholdt, M. M., & Ousman, K. (2016). Cultural humility: A concept analysis. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 27(3), 210–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659615592677
Giebenhain, J. E., & O’Dell, S. L. (1984). Evaluation of a parent-training manual for reducing children’s fear of the dark. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17(1), 121–125. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1984.17-121
Goedeke, S., Shepherd, D., Landon, J., & Taylor, S. (2019). How perceived support relates to child autism symptoms and care-related stress in parents caring for a child with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 60, 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2019.01.005
Gona, J. K., Newton, C., Hartley, S., & Bunning, K. (2020). Development of self-help groups for caregivers of children with disabilities in Kilifi, Kenya: Process evaluation. African Journal of Disability, 9. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v9i0.650
Halbur, M. E., Kodak, T., Wood, R., & Corrigan, E. (2020). An evaluation of parent preference for prompting procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(2), 707–726. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.616
Halder, A. K., Tiro, J. A., Glassman, B., Rakowski, W., Fernandez, M. E., Perez, C. A., & Vernon, S. W. (2008). Lessons learned from developing a tailored print intervention: A guide for practitioners and researchers new to tailoring. Health Promotion Practice, 9(3), 281–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839906289042
Houts, P. S., Witmer, J. T., Egeth, H. E., Loscalzo, M. J., & Zabora, J. R. (2001). Using pictographs to enhance recall of spoken medical instructions II. Patient Education and Counseling, 43(3), 231–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0738-3991(00)00171-3
Houts, P. S., Doak, C. C., Doak, L. G., & Loscalzo, M. J. (2006). The role of pictures in improving health communication: A review of research on attention, comprehension, recall, and adherence. Patient Education and Counseling, 61(2), 173–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2005.05.004
Jarmolowicz, D. P., Kahng, S., Ingvarsson, E. T., Goysovich, R., Heggemeyer, R., & Gregory, M. K. (2008). Effects of conversational versus technical language on treatment preference and integrity. Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 46(3), 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1352/2008.46:190-199
Jones, S. H., Peter, C. C. S., & Ruckle, M. M. (2020). Reporting of demographic variables in the journal of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(3), 1304–1315. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.722
Kline, K. N., Montealegre, J. R., Rustveld, L. O., Glover, T. L., Chauca, G., Reed, B. C., & Jibaja-Weiss, M. L. (2016). Incorporating cultural sensitivity into interactive entertainment-education for diabetes self-management designed for Hispanic audiences. Journal of Health Communication, 21(6), 658–668. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2016.1153758
Kreuter, M. W., & McClure, S. M. (2004). The role of culture in health communication. Annual Review of Public Health, 25, 439–55. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123000
Kreuter, M. W., Lukwago, S. N., Bucholtz, D. C., Clark, E. M., & Sanders-Thompson, V. (2003). Achieving cultural appropriateness in health promotion programs: Targeted and tailored approaches. Health Education & Behavior, 30(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198102251021
Kuhn, B. R., Allen, K. D., & Shriver, M. D. (1995). Behavioral management of children’s seizure activity. Intervention guidelines for primary-care providers. Clinical Pediatrics, 34(11), 570–575. https://doi.org/10.1177/000992289503401101
Kumpfer, K., Magalhães, C., & Xie, J. (2017). Cultural adaptation and implementation of family evidence-based interventions with diverse populations. Prevention Science: The Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research, 18(6), 649–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0719-3
Leeman, J., Skelly, A. H., Burns, D., Carlson, J., & Soward, A. (2008). Tailoring a diabetes self-care intervention for use with older, rural African American women. The Diabetes Educator, 34(2), 310–317. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145721708316623
Liao, Y., Dillenburger, K., & Buchanan, I. (2018). Does culture matter in ABA-based autism interventions? Parent and professional experiences in the UK and China. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 19(1), 11–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/15021149.2017.1399657
Mendez-Luck, C. A., & Anthony, K. P. (2016). Marianismo and caregiving role beliefs among U.S.-born and immigrant Mexican women. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 71(5), 926–935. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv083
Miller, M. B. (2013). A visual aid designed to teach cervical dilation. International Journal of Childbirth Education, 28, 35–38 https://www.thefreelibrary.com/A+visual+aid+designed+to+teach+cervical+dilation.-a0352490738
Moore, T. R., & Symons, F. J. (2011). Adherence to treatment in a behavioral intervention curriculum for parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Behavior Modification, 35(6), 570–594. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445511418103
Moss, M., & Puma, M. (1995). Prospects: The congressionally mandated study of educational growth and opportunity. First year report on language minority and limited English proficient students. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED394334
National Cancer Institute (U.S.). (2004). Making health communication programs work: a planner’s guide. National Institutes of Health, 04-5145. Retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/publications/health-communication/pink-book.pdf
Neuman, P. (2018). Vernacular selection: What to say and when to say it. Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 34(1–2), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-018-0097-y
Nierkens, V., Hartman, M. A., Nicolaou, M., Vissenberg, C., Beune, E. J. A. J., Hosper, K., van Valkengoed, I. G., & Stronks, K. (2013). Effectiveness of cultural adaptations of interventions aimed at smoking cessation, diet, and/or physical activity in ethnic minorities. A systematic review. PLOS ONE, 8(10), e73373. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073373
Osmar, K., & Webb, D. (2015). From idea to implementation: Creation of an educational picture book for radiation therapy patients. Journal of Cancer Education, 30(1), 193–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-014-0728-5
Quigley, S. P., Ross, R. K., Field, S., & Conway, A. A. (2018). Toward an understanding of the essential components of behavior analytic service plans. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11(4), 436–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-0255-7
Rathod, S., Gega, L., Degnan, A., Pikard, J., Khan, T., Husain, N., Munshi, T., & Naeem, F. (2018). The current status of culturally adapted mental health interventions: A practice-focused review of meta-analyses. Neuropsychiatric Disease & Treatment, 14, 165–178. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S138430
Raulston, T. J., Hieneman, M., Caraway, N., Pennefather, J., & Bhana, N. (2019). Enablers of behavioral parent training for families of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(3), 693–703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1295-x
Resnicow, K., Baranowski, T., Ahluwalia, J. S., & Braithwaite, R. L. (1999). Cultural sensitivity in public health: Defined and demystified. Ethnicity & Disease, 9(1), 10–21.
Resnicow, K., Davis, R., Zhang, N., Strecher, V., Tolsma, D., Calvi, J., Alexander, G., Anderson, J. P., Wiese, C., & Cross Jr., W. E. (2009). Tailoring a fruit and vegetable intervention on ethnic identity: Results of a randomized study. Health Psychology, 28(4), 394–403. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015217
Rodriguez, B. L., & Olswang, L. B. (2003). Mexican-American and Anglo-American mothers’ beliefs and values about child rearing, education, and language impairment. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 12(4), 452–462. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2003/091)
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976
Singelis, T. M., Garcia, R. I., Barker, J. C., & Davis, R. E. (2018). An experimental test of the two-dimensional theory of cultural sensitivity in health communication. Journal of Health Communication, 23(4), 321–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2018.1443526
Stubbe, D. E. (2020). Practicing cultural competence and cultural humility in the care of diverse patients. FOCUS, 18(1), 49–51. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20190041
Tanaka-Matsumi, J., Seiden, D. Y., & Lam, K. N. (1996). The culturally informed functional assessment (CIFA) interview: A strategy for cross-cultural behavioral practice. Cognitive & Behavioral Practice, 3(2), 215–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1077-7229(96)80015-0
U.S. Department of Education. (2003). National assessment of adult literacy (NAAL). National center for education statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/naal/health_results.asp
Wang, Y., Kang, S., Ramirez, J., & Tarbox, J. (2019). Multilingual diversity in the field of applied behavior analysis and autism: A brief review and discussion of future directions. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(4), 795–804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00382-1
Ward-Horner, J., & Sturmey, P. (2012). Component analysis of behavior skills training in functional analysis. Behavioral Interventions, 27(2), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1339
Webb, M. S., Francis, J., Hines, B. C., & Quarles, F. B. (2007). Health disparities and culturally specific treatment: Perspectives and expectancies of African American smokers. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63(6), 567–583. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20372
Woodruff, S., Talavera, G., & Elder, J. (2002). Evaluation of a culturally appropriate smoking cessation intervention for Latinos. Tobacco Control, 11(4), 361–367. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.11.4.361
Funding
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
Not applicable.
Consent to Participate
Not applicable.
Consent for Publication
Photographs of paid models were used in pictograph images, Figure 3. Models signed informed consent regarding publishing their photographs. Stock photo for Figure 2 was purchased by the author and used with permission by M Agency/Shutterstock.com.
Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Additional information
We thank Anthony Baldassari for his collaborative efforts to serve families of diverse backgrounds.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Martinez, S., Mahoney, A. Culturally Sensitive Behavior Intervention Materials: a Tutorial for Practicing Behavior Analysts. Behav Analysis Practice 15, 516–540 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00703-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00703-x