Skip to main content
Log in

A Systematic Review of Caregiver-Implemented Functional Analyses

  • Discussion and Review Paper
  • Published:
Behavior Analysis in Practice Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this systematic review was to systematically locate and analyze the research on caregiver-implemented functional analyses and subsequent function-based interventions. We included 36 studies and examined multiple features of the studies, including participant demographics, functional analysis characteristics, intervention characteristics, procedural fidelity, risks of bias, and social validity. Overall, the studies showed that caregivers were able to implement functional analyses that yielded differential responding, although few studies reported procedural fidelity data. Caregivers were also able to implement function-based interventions that led to socially significant changes in challenging behavior. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the review.

  • *Arndorfer, R. E., Miltenberger, R. G., Woster, S. H., Rortvedt, A. K., & Gaffaney, T. (1994). Home-based descriptive and experimental analysis of problem behavior. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 14, 64–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112149401400108.

  • Beavers, G. A., Iwata, B. A., & Lerman, D. C. (2013). Thirty years of research on the functional analysis of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Benson, S. S., Dimian, A. F., Elmquist, M., Simacek, J., & Symons, F. J. (2018). Coaching caregivers to assess and treat self-injurious behaviour via telehealth. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 62, 1114–1123. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12456

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Berg, W. K., Wacker, D. P., Harding, J. W., Ganzer, J., & Barretto, A. (2007). An evaluation of multiple dependent variables across distinct classes of antecedent stimuli pre and post functional communication training. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavioral Intervention, 3, 305–333.

  • Bloom, S. E., Lambert, J. M., Dayton, E., & Samaha, A. (2013). Teacher-conducted trial-based functional analyses as the basis for intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 208–218. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Brown, K. A., Wacker, D. P., Derby, K. M., Peck, S. M., Richman, D. M., Sasso, G. M., . . . Harding, J. W. (2000). Evaluating the effects of functional communication training in the presence and absence of establishing operations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 53–71. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-53

  • Carr, E. G. (1977). The motivation of self-injurious behavior: A review of some hypotheses. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 800–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.84.4.800.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carr, E. G., & Durand, V. M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1985.18-111.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • EndNote X8® [Software] (2018). Philadelphia, PA: Clarivate Analytics. Retrieved from https://endnote.com/.

  • *Danov, S. E., Hartman, E., McComas, J. J., & Symons, F. J. (2010). Evaluation of two communicative response modalities for a child with autism and self-injury. Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 70–79.

  • DEC Recommended Practices Evidence Synthesis Group. (2018). DEC recommended practices evidence syntheses guidebook part I: Review methods protocol. Adapted from B. Reichow, P. Snyder, J. Carta, C. Trivette, & M. McLean. Guidelines for conducting an evidence synthesis: Part I: Review methods protocol. Gainesville, FL: Anita Zucker Center.

  • *Derby, K. M., Wacker, D. P., Berg, W., DeRaad, A., Ulrich, S., Asmus, J., . . . Stoner, E. A. (1997). The long-term effects of functional communication training in home settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 507–531. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1997.30-507.

  • Dunlap, G., & Fox, L. (2011). Function-based interventions for children with challenging behavior. Journal of Early Intervention, 33, 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815111429971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Ellingson, S. A., Miltenberger, R. G., Stricker, J. M., Garlinghouse, M. A., Roberts, J., Galensky, T. L., & Rapp, J. T. (2000). Analysis and treatment of finger sucking. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 41–52. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-41

  • *English, C. L., & Anderson, C. M. (2004). Effects of familiar versus unfamiliar therapists on responding in the analog functional analysis. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25, 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2003.04.002

  • Fettig, A., & Barton, E. E. (2014). Parent implementation of function-based intervention to reduce children’s challenging behavior: A literature review. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 34, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121413513037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fettig, A., Schultz, T. R., & Srekovic, M. A. (2015). Effects of coaching on implementation of functional assessment-based parent intervention in reducing challenging behaviors. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 17, 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300714564164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Gerow, S., Rispoli, M., Gregori, E., & Sanchez, L. (2019). Parent-implemented trial-based functional analysis for young children with ASD. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 34, 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357618755695

  • Greenhalgh, T., & Peacock, R. (2005). Effectiveness and efficiency of search methods in systematic reviews of complex evidence: Audit of primary sources. British Journal of Medicine, 331, 1064–1065. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38636.593461.68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F. M., Watson, T. S., & Skinner, C. H. (2001). Functional behavioral assessment: Principles, procedures, and future directions. School Psychology Review, 30, 156–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanley, G. P. (2012). Functional assessment of problem behavior: Dispelling myths, overcoming implementation obstacles, and developing new lore. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5, 54–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391818.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & McCord, B. E. (2003). Functional analysis of problem behavior: A review. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 147–185. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-147.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • *Harding, J. W., Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Barretto, A., & Ringdahl, J. (2005). Evaluation of relations between specific antecedent stimuli and self-injury during functional analysis conditions. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 110, 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2005)110<205:EORBSA>2.0.CO;2

  • *Harding, J. W., Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Lee, J. F., & Dolezal, D. (2009a). Conducting functional communication training in home settings: A case study and recommendations for practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 2, 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391734

  • *Harding, J. W., Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Winborn-Kemmerer, L., Lee, J. F., & Ibrahimovic, M. (2009b). Analysis of multiple manding topographies during functional communication training. Education and Treatment of Children, 32, 21–36.

  • *Huete, J. M., & Kurtz, P. F. (2010). Therapist effects on functional analysis outcomes with young children. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31, 804–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2010.02.005

  • Ingram, K., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai, G. (2005). Function-based intervention planning: Comparing the effectiveness of FBA function-based and non–function-based intervention plans. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007050070040401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 197–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kantor, J. R. (1970). An analysis of the experimental analysis of behavior (TEAB). Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 13, 101–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Single-case designs for educational research. New York, NY: Pearson Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Kurtz, P. F., Chin, M. D., Huete, J. M., Tarbox, R. S. F., O’Connor, J. T., Paclawskyj, T. R., & Rush, K. S. (2003). Functional analysis and treatment of self-injurious behavior in young children: A summary of 30 cases. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 205–219.

  • *Kurtz, P. F., Fodstad, J. C., Huete, J. M., & Hagopian, L. P. (2013). Caregiver- and staff-conducted functional analysis outcomes: A summary of 52 cases. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46, 738–749.

  • Lambert, J. M., Bloom, S. E., & Irvin, J. (2012). Trial-based functional analysis and functional communication training in an early childhood setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45, 579–584. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2012.45-579.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A. (2003). Motivating operations and terms to describe them: Some further refinements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-407.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • *Lindgren, S., Wacker, D., Suess, A., Schieltz, K., Pelzel, K., Kopelman, T., . . . Waldron, D. (2016). Telehealth and autism: Treating challenging behavior at lower cost. Pediatrics, 137, 167–175.

  • Lloyd, B. P., Wehby, J. H., Weaver, E. S., Goldman, S. E., Harvey, M. N., & Sherlock, D. R. (2015). Implementation and validation of trial-based functional analyses in public elementary school settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 24, 167–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-014-9217-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Machalicek, W., Lequia, J., Pinkelman, S., Knowles, C., Raulston, T., Davis, T., & Alresheed, F. (2016). Behavioral telehealth consultation with families of children with autism spectrum disorder. Behavioral Interventions, 31, 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1450

  • *Martens, B. K., Baxter, E. L., McComas, J. J., Sallade, S. J., Kester, J. S., Caamano, M., . . . Pennington, B. (2019). Agreement between structured descriptive assessments and functional analyses conducted over a telehealth system. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice. 19, 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/bar0000153

  • *McAdam, D. B., Diesar, A., Murphy, S., & Marshall, B. (2004). The influence of different therapists on functional analysis outcomes. Behavioral Interventions, 19, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.148

  • Meyer, K. A. (1999). Functional analysis and treatment of problem behavior exhibited by elementary school children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 229–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Moes, R. D., & Frea, W. D. (2002). Contextualized behavioral support in early intervention for children with autism and their families. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 519–533.

  • Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Najdowski, A. C., Wallace, M. D., Penrod, B., Tarbox, J., Raegon, K., & Higbee, T. S. (2008). Caregiver-conducted experimental functional analyses of inappropriate mealtime behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 459–465. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2008.41-459

  • Northrup, J., Wacker, D., Sasso, G., Steege, M., Cigrand, K., Cook, J., & DeRaad, A. (1991). A brief functional analysis of aggressive and alternative behavior in an outclinic setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 509–522. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1991.24-509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *O’Reilly, M. F., Lancioni, G. E., King, L., Lally, G., & Dhomhnaill, O. N. (2000). Using brief assessments to evaluate aberrant behavior maintained by attention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 109–112. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-109

  • *O’Reilly, M., Lancioni, G., & Taylor, I. (1999). An empirical analysis of two forms of extinction to treat aggression. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 20, 315–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-4222(99)00013-X

  • *Parks, N. A., Clark, S. B., & Call, N. A. (2012). Differential responding across therapists in a functional analysis: A case study. Behavioral Interventions, 27, 236–243. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1343

  • Prykanowski, D. A. (2018). An examination of trial-based functional analysis with intervention in the home for young children with or at risk for autism spectrum disorder (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.

  • Reichow, B., Barton, E. E., & Maggin, D. M. (2018). Development and applications of the single-case design risk of bias tool for evaluating single-case design research study reports. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 79, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.05.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reimers, T. M., & Wacker, D. P. (1988). Parents’ rating of the acceptability of behavioral treatment recommendations made in an outpatient clinic: A preliminary analysis of the influence of treatment effectiveness. Behavioral Disorders, 14, 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874298801400104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Review Manager (Version 5.3) [Software]. (2014). Copenhagen. Denmark: The Nordic Cochrane Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Ringdahl, J. E., & Sellers, J. A. (2000). The effects of different adults as therapists during functional analyses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 247–250. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-247

  • *Robertson, R. E., Wehby, J. H., & King, S. M. (2013). Increased caregiver reinforcement of spontaneous requests in children with autism spectrum disorder: Effects on problem behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34, 1069–1082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.12.011

  • *Schieltz, K. M., Wacker, D. P., Harding, J. W., Berg, W. K., Lee, J. F., & Padilla Dalmau, Y. C. (2010). An evaluation of manding across functions prior to functional communication training. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 22, 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-009-9181-5

  • *Schieltz, K. M., Wacker, D. P., Harding, J. W., Berg, W. K., Lee, J. F., Padilla Dalmau, Y. C., . . . Ibrahimovic, M. (2011). Indirect effects of functional communication training on non-targeted disruptive behavior. Journal of Behavioral Education, 20, 15–32.

  • Schill, M. T., Kratochwill, T. R., & Elliot, S. N. (1998). Functional assessment in behavioral consultation: A treatment utility study. School Psychology Quarterly, 13, 116–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088977.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigafoos, J., & Saggers, E. (2009). A discrete-trial approach to the functional analysis of aggressive behaviour in two boys with autism. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 20, 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/07263869500035621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Simacek, J., Dimian, A. F., & McComas, J. J. (2017). Communication intervention for young children with severe neurodevelopmental disabilities via telehealth. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 744–767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-3006-z

  • *Stricker, J. M., Miltenberger, R. G., Anderson, C. F., Tulloch, H. E., & Deaver, C. M. (2002). A functional analysis of finger sucking in children. Behavior Modification, 26, 424–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445502026003008

  • *Suess, A. N., Romani, P. W., Wacker, D. P., Dyson, S. M., Kuhle, J. L., Lee, J. F., . . . Waldron, D. B. (2014). Evaluating the treatment fidelity of caregivers who conduct in-home functional communication training with coaching via telehealth. Journal of Behavioral Education, 23, 34–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-013-9183-3

  • Taylor, J., & Miller, M. (1997). When timeout works some of the time: The importance of treatment integrity and functional assessment. School Psychology Quarterly, 12(1), 4–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Thomason-Sassi, J. L., Iwata, B. A., & Fritz, J. N. (2013). Therapist and setting influences on functional analysis outcomes. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46, 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.28

  • Vaughan, M. E., & Michael, J. L. (1982). Automatic reinforcement: An important but ignored concept. Behaviorism, 10, 217–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vollmer, T. R., Marcus, B. A., Ringdahl, J. E., & Roane, H. S. (1995). Progressing from brief assessments to extended experimental analyses in the evaluation of aberrant behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 561–576. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1995.28-561.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vollmer, T. R., Northrup, J., Ringdahl, J. E., LeBlanc, L. A., & Chauvin, T. M. (1996). Functional analysis of severe tantrums displayed by children with language delays: An outclinic assessment. Behavior Modification, 20, 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455960201005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Harding, J. W., Barretto, A., Ranking, B., & Ganzer, J. (2005). Treatment effectiveness, stimulus generalization, and acceptability to caregivers of functional communication training. Educational Psychology, 25, 233–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341042000301184

  • *Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Harding, J. W., Derby, K. M., Asmus, J. M., & Healy, A. (1998). Evaluation of long-term treatment of aberrant behavior displayed by young children with disabilities. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 19, 260–266.

  • *Wacker, D. P., Lee, J. F., Padilla Dalmau, Y. C., Kopelman, T. G., Lindgren, S. D., Kuhle, J., . . . Waldron, D. B. (2013). Conducting functional analyses of problem behavior via telehealth. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46, 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.29

  • *Wacker, D. P., Schieltz, K. M., Berg, W. K., Harding, J. W., Padilla Dalmau, Y. C., & Lee, J. F. (2017). The long-term effects of functional communication training conducted in young children’s home settings. Education and Treatment of Children, 40, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1997.30-507

  • Wahler, R. G., & Fox, J. J. (1981). Setting events in applied behavior analysis: Toward conceptual understanding and methodological expansion. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1981.14-327.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M. M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-203.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Funding was provided by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (Grant No. 325D150079). The opinions expressed are those of the authors, not the funding agency, and no official endorsement should be inferred.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sara Germansky.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix: Search terms and order

Appendix: Search terms and order

  1. 1.

    Famil*

  2. 2.

    Parent*

  3. 3.

    Caregiver*

  4. 4.

    Care-giver*

  5. 5.

    1 or 2 or 3 or 4

  6. 6.

    “functional analysis”

  7. 7.

    “functional analyses”

  8. 8.

    “functional behavior* assessment”

  9. 9.

    “functional behaviour* assessment”

  10. 10.

    “functional assessment”

  11. 11.

    “behavior* assessment”

  12. 12.

    “challenging behavior assessment”

  13. 13.

    “problem behavior assessment”

  14. 14.

    6 or 7 or 8 or 9 or 10 or 11 or 12 or 13

  15. 15.

    involv*

  16. 16.

    implement*

  17. 17.

    perform*

  18. 18.

    teach*

  19. 19.

    train*

  20. 20.

    15 or 16 or 17 or 18 or 19

  21. 21.

    S5 and S14 and S20

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Germansky, S., Reichow, B., Martin, M. et al. A Systematic Review of Caregiver-Implemented Functional Analyses. Behav Analysis Practice 13, 698–713 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00404-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00404-y

Keywords

Navigation