Abstract
Seaports are a vital part of the maritime transport industry and have a key role in integrated transport chains and regional economies. However, ports are also sites of environmental pollution originating from land-based activities, ship movements and ports’ own activities. It is, therefore, increasingly recognised that economic growth in ports must be balanced with environmental protection and social progress. This has led to enhanced appreciation of the need for sustainable development (SD) in ports. Whilst much has been written about port environmental practices in European and American ports, there is limited synthesis and comparison of sustainable port practices from different parts of the world. Furthermore, in-depth case analysis and critical examination of the practices and challenges of sustainable port development in a globalised era is limited. This paper presents findings from a qualitative multi-case study that aimed to compare sustainable policies and practices of ports in four different continents and to understand the dilemmas, challenges and opportunities they face in attaining SD. This paper reports findings pertaining to the following research questions: (1) What policy frameworks do ports adopt to attain sustainable development? (2) What specific sustainable practices do ports utilise to manage environmental aspects such as air pollution, water quality, ballast water, dredging and disposal of dredged materials, waste disposal, hazardous substances and land/resource use? (3) What are the driving and constraining forces in achieving sustainable development in ports? Port authorities were studied by reviewing documents and secondary data. The following ports were studied: Port of Long Beach (USA), Port of Rotterdam Authority (The Netherlands), Sydney Ports Corporation (Australia) and Transnet Limited that owns and manages South African ports. Findings of the study demonstrate that the SD paradigm has gained momentum, albeit to differing degrees, in the functioning, organisation and the very ethos of case study ports. An important theme from all case studies is that, whilst there is definite progress towards SD, several practices deemed to be sustainable can be controversial and must be critically examined from the perspectives of different stakeholders including shippers, port-related businesses and the local and global community. Lack of data to monitor environmental impacts, economic costs of implementing sustainable practices and complexities of international, regional and national regulations were other constraining factors. On the other hand, reconciling differences between stakeholders and capitalising on economic opportunities, operational efficiencies and cost savings offered by environmental friendliness can advance port SD. Public–private partnerships and policies negotiated by involving all stakeholders were found to foster port sustainability. Most importantly, this study found that, with globalisation, environmental impacts of ports are not always localised. ‘Sustainable’ practices can have unintended consequences in other parts of the world. Therefore, globalisation necessitates a more critical and global analysis of port operations and environment practices in order to be truly sustainable. Although the scope of the research findings is limited to case study ports, the lessons drawn can be constructively applied to any port operating within an institutional system of structured SD.
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Notes
Vessels berthed at ports use their auxiliary engines and sometimes their main engines to provide heating, cooling and electricity and for loading and unloading cargo, thereby generating significant emissions (Friedrich et al. 2007). Similarly, road and rail transport and industrial activities in port areas generate emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter (PM) (Bailey 2004; ESPO 2009a).
Sources of water pollution in ports include wash water of oil tankers, cabin water, gas stations on shore, repair and moving machinery; runoff water from storm drains and coal storage, wash water from terminal surfaces; port region and ship sewage and industrial wastewater; ship discharge (bilge water) which can contain water, oil, dispersants, detergents, solvents, chemicals, particles and more (EcoPorts Foundation 2006a; IAPH 1999).
Ballast water is used by ships for maintaining stability when navigating with little or no cargo. Seawater is widely used as ballast material, and it is usual practice to get seawater from near the ship or the port of discharge. Local water, however, contains aquatic organisms and bacteria, which get transported with ballast water. When the ship reaches the next port for loading or discharging cargo, it ejects this ballast water into the local harbour, thereby introducing foreign organisms. The alien species released can survive and reproduce, often preying on native species or competing with them for food and/or space, and threatening local ecosystems (Reynolds 2004).
Dredging consists of periodic removal of sediments from seabeds in port approach channels to maintain water widths and depths to ensure safe access for ships. The disposal of dredge materials can have adverse effects on biophysical health of lagoons and water quality due to acute chemical toxicity, increased suspended sediments and release of contaminants (Bolam et al. 2006; EcoPorts Foundation 2006b).
In an increasingly globalised world, where goods are transported by sea in ever-increasing quantities, dangers of permitting hazardous substances to cross borders is escalating. Hazardous wastes (hazardous waste) constitute the biggest component: yearly trade in hazardous waste is estimated at $10–12 billion (D’Monte 2009). While hazardous waste and handling of hazardous goods are of concern, there is increasing trepidation about marine oil pollution and oil spills particularly after the grounding of Exxon Valdez that spilled 30,000 tons of oil in Alaska in March 1989 (queryFarthing and Brownrigg 1997).
Keywords included port name and the following terms: sustainable development, environment management, air pollution, air quality, water quality, ballast water, dredging, dredged material disposal, hazardous materials management, hazardous waste, port expansion and port development.
While public perceptions of marine oil pollution are associated with tanker groundings and collisions, in reality, accidents are responsible for minor proportions of marine oil pollution. Reynolds (2004) notes that only 20 % of ship-generated oil pollution results from accidents; the remainder is discharged during normal ship operations.
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Hiranandani, V. Sustainable development in seaports: a multi-case study. WMU J Marit Affairs 13, 127–172 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-013-0040-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-013-0040-y