Abstract
Changes in DNA methylation patterns are an important characteristic of human cancer including lung cancer. In particular, hypermethylation of CpG islands is a signature of malignant progression. Methylated CpG islands are promising diagnostic markers for the early detection of cancer. However, the full extent and sequence context of DNA hypermethylation in lung cancer has remained unknown. We have used the methylated CpG island recovery assay and high-resolution microarray analysis to find hypermethylated CpG islands in squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and adenocarcinomas of the lung. Each tumor contained several hundred hypermethylated CpG islands. In an initial microarray screen, 36 CpG islands were methylated in five of five (=100%) of the SCC tumors tested and 52 CpG islands were methylated in at least 75% of the adenocarcinomas tested (n = 8). Using sodium-bisulfite-based approaches, 12 CpG islands (associated with the BARHL2, EVX2, IRX2, MEIS1, MSX1, NR2E1, OC2, OSR1, OTX1, PAX6, TFAP2A, and ZNF577 genes) were confirmed to be methylated in 85% to 100% of the squamous cell carcinomas and 11 CpG islands (associated with the CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KCNG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1 genes) were methylated in >80% of the adenocarcinomas. From the list of genes that were methylated in lung adenocarcinomas, we identified the gene FAT4 and found that this gene was methylated in 39% of the tumors. FAT4 is the closest mammalian homologue of the Drosophila tumor suppressor Fat which is an important component of the Hippo growth control pathway. Many of these newly discovered methylated CpG islands hold promise for becoming biomarkers for the early detection of lung cancer.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anglim PP, Alonzo TA, Laird-Offringa IA. DNA methylation-based biomarkers for early detection of non-small cell lung cancer: an update. Mol Cancer. 2008;7:81.
Baylin SB, Hoppener JW, de Bustros A, Steenbergh PH, Lips CJ, Nelkin BD. DNA methylation patterns of the calcitonin gene in human lung cancers and lymphomas. Cancer Res. 1986;46:2917–22.
Belinsky SA. Gene-promoter hypermethylation as a biomarker in lung cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2004;4:707–17.
Berndt A, Cario CL, Silva KA, Kennedy VE, Harrison DE, Paigen B, Sundberg JP. Identification of fat4 and tsc22d1 as novel candidate genes for spontaneous pulmonary adenomas. Cancer Res. 2011;71:5779–91.
Burbee DG, Forgacs E, Zochbauer-Muller S, Shivakumar L, Fong K, Gao B, Randle D, Kondo M, Virmani A, Bader S, Sekido Y, Latif F, Milchgrub S, Toyooka S, Gazdar AF, Lerman MI, Zabarovsky E, White M, Minna JD. Epigenetic inactivation of RASSF1A in lung and breast cancers and malignant phenotype suppression. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93:691–9.
Cho E, Feng Y, Rauskolb C, Maitra S, Fehon R, Irvine KD. Delineation of a Fat tumor suppressor pathway. Nat Genet. 2006;38:1142–50.
Costello JF, Fruhwald MC, Smiraglia DJ, Rush LJ, Robertson GP, Gao X, Wright FA, Feramisco JD, Peltomaki P, Lang JC, Schuller DE, Yu L, Bloomfield CD, Caligiuri MA, Yates A, Nishikawa R, Su Huang H, Petrelli NJ, Zhang X, O’Dorisio MS, et al. Aberrant CpG-island methylation has non-random and tumour-type-specific patterns. Nat Genet. 2000;24:132–8.
Costello JF, Plass C. Methylation matters. J Med Genet. 2001;38:285–303.
Dammann R, Li C, Yoon JH, Chin PL, Bates S, Pfeifer GP. Epigenetic inactivation of a RAS association domain family protein from the lung tumour suppressor locus 3p21.3. Nat Genet. 2000;25:315–9.
Dammann R, Takahashi T, Pfeifer GP. The CpG island of the novel tumor suppressor gene RASSF1A is intensely methylated in primary small cell lung carcinomas. Oncogene. 2001;20:3563–7.
Dammann R, Strunnikova M, Schagdarsurengin U, Rastetter M, Papritz M, Hattenhorst UE, Hofmann HS, Silber RE, Burdach S, Hansen G. CpG island methylation and expression of tumour-associated genes in lung carcinoma. Eur J Cancer. 2005;41:1223–36.
Esteller M, Corn PG, Baylin SB, Herman JG. A gene hypermethylation profile of human cancer. Cancer Res. 2001;61:3225–9.
Esteller M. Cancer epigenomics: DNA methylomes and histone-modification maps. Nat Rev Genet. 2007;8:286–98.
Feinberg AP, Vogelstein B. Hypomethylation distinguishes genes of some human cancers from their normal counterparts. Nature. 1983;301:89–92.
Feng Q, Hawes SE, Stern JE, Wiens L, Lu H, Dong ZM, Jordan CD, Kiviat NB, Vesselle H. DNA methylation in tumor and matched normal tissues from non-small cell lung cancer patients. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17:645–54.
Gama-Sosa MA, Slagel VA, Trewyn RW, Oxenhandler R, Kuo KC, Gehrke CW, Ehrlich M. The 5-methylcytosine content of DNA from human tumors. Nucleic Acids Res. 1983;11:6883–94.
Gonzalez-Zulueta M, Bender CM, Yang AS, Nguyen T, Beart RW, Van Tornout JM, Jones PA. Methylation of the 5′ CpG island of the p16/CDKN2 tumor suppressor gene in normal and transformed human tissues correlates with gene silencing. Cancer Res. 1995;55:4531–5.
Guo C, Tommasi S, Liu L, Yee JK, Dammann R, Pfeifer GP. RASSF1A is part of a complex similar to the Drosophila Hippo/Salvador/Lats tumor-suppressor network. Curr Biol. 2007;17:700–5.
Guo C, Zhang X, Pfeifer GP. The tumor suppressor RASSF1A prevents dephosphorylation of the mammalian STE20-like kinases MST1 and MST2. J Biol Chem. 2011;286:6253–61.
Herman JG, Merlo A, Mao L, Lapidus RG, Issa JP, Davidson NE, Sidransky D, Baylin SB. Inactivation of the CDKN2/p16/MTS1 gene is frequently associated with aberrant DNA methylation in all common human cancers. Cancer Res. 1995;55:4525–30.
Jones PA, Baylin SB. The epigenomics of cancer. Cell. 2007;128:683–92.
Kalari S, Pfeifer GP. Identification of driver and passenger DNA methylation in cancer by epigenomic analysis. Adv Genet. 2010;70:277–308.
Kane MF, Loda M, Gaida GM, Lipman J, Mishra R, Goldman H, Jessup JM, Kolodner R. Methylation of the hMLH1 promoter correlates with lack of expression of hMLH1 in sporadic colon tumors and mismatch repair-defective human tumor cell lines. Cancer Res. 1997;57:808–11.
Lahtz C, Pfeifer GP. Epigenetic changes of DNA repair genes in cancer. J Mol Cell Biol. 2011;3:51–8.
Laird PW. The power and the promise of DNA methylation markers. Nat Rev Cancer. 2003;3:253–66.
Lee KP, Lee JH, Kim TS, Kim TH, Park HD, Byun JS, Kim MC, Jeong WI, Calvisi DF, Kim JM, Lim DS. The Hippo–Salvador pathway restrains hepatic oval cell proliferation, liver size, and liver tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107:8248–53.
Merlo A, Herman JG, Mao L, Lee DJ, Gabrielson E, Burger PC, Baylin SB, Sidransky D. 5′ CpG island methylation is associated with transcriptional silencing of the tumour suppressor p16/CDKN2/MTS1 in human cancers. Nat Med. 1995;1:686–92.
Ohm JE, McGarvey KM, Yu X, Cheng L, Schuebel KE, Cope L, Mohammad HP, Chen W, Daniel VC, Yu W, Berman DM, Jenuwein T, Pruitt K, Sharkis SJ, Watkins DN, Herman JG, Baylin SB. A stem cell-like chromatin pattern may predispose tumor suppressor genes to DNA hypermethylation and heritable silencing. Nat Genet. 2007;39:237–42.
Pan D. The hippo signaling pathway in development and cancer. Dev Cell. 2010;19:491–505.
Pfeifer GP, Dammann R, Tommasi S. RASSF proteins. Curr Biol. 2010;20:R344–5.
Rauch T, Pfeifer GP. Methylated-CpG island recovery assay: a new technique for the rapid detection of methylated-CpG islands in cancer. Lab Investig. 2005;85:1172–80.
Rauch T, Li H, Wu X, Pfeifer GP. MIRA-assisted microarray analysis, a new technology for the determination of DNA methylation patterns, identifies frequent methylation of homeodomain-containing genes in lung cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2006;66:7939–47.
Rauch T, Wang Z, Zhang X, Zhong X, Wu X, Lau SK, Kernstine KH, Riggs AD, Pfeifer GP. Homeobox gene methylation in lung cancer studied by genome-wide analysis with a microarray-based methylated CpG island recovery assay. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:5527–32.
Rauch TA, Zhong X, Wu X, Wang M, Kernstine KH, Wang Z, Riggs AD, Pfeifer GP. High-resolution mapping of DNA hypermethylation and hypomethylation in lung cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105:252–7.
Rauch TA, Pfeifer GP. DNA methylation profiling using the methylated-CpG island recovery assay (MIRA). Methods. 2010;52:213–7.
Riggs AD, Jones PA. 5-Methylcytosine, gene regulation, and cancer. Adv Cancer Res. 1983;40:1–30.
Schlesinger Y, Straussman R, Keshet I, Farkash S, Hecht M, Zimmerman J, Eden E, Yakhini Z, Ben-Shushan E, Reubinoff BE, Bergman Y, Simon I, Cedar H. Polycomb-mediated methylation on Lys27 of histone H3 pre-marks genes for de novo methylation in cancer. Nat Genet. 2007;39:232–6.
Seidel C, Schagdarsurengin U, Blumke K, Wurl P, Pfeifer GP, Hauptmann S, Taubert H, Dammann R. Frequent hypermethylation of MST1 and MST2 in soft tissue sarcoma. Mol Carcinog. 2007;46:865–71.
Sudol M, Harvey KF. Modularity in the Hippo signaling pathway. Trends Biochem Sci. 2010;35:627–33.
Tommasi S, Dammann R, Zhang Z, Wang Y, Liu L, Tsark WM, Wilczynski SP, Li J, You M, Pfeifer GP. Tumor susceptibility of Rassf1a knockout mice. Cancer Res. 2005;65:92–8.
Tommasi S, Karm DL, Wu X, Yen Y, Pfeifer GP. Methylation of homeobox genes is a frequent and early epigenetic event in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 2009;11:R14.
Topaloglu O, Hoque MO, Tokumaru Y, Lee J, Ratovitski E, Sidransky D, Moon CS. Detection of promoter hypermethylation of multiple genes in the tumor and bronchoalveolar lavage of patients with lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10:2284–8.
Ushijima T. Detection and interpretation of altered methylation patterns in cancer cells. Nat Rev Cancer. 2005;5:223–31.
Widschwendter M, Fiegl H, Egle D, Mueller-Holzner E, Spizzo G, Marth C, Weisenberger DJ, Campan M, Young J, Jacobs I, Laird PW. Epigenetic stem cell signature in cancer. Nat Genet. 2007;39:157–8.
Wu X, Rauch TA, Zhong X, Bennett WP, Latif F, Krex D, Pfeifer GP. CpG island hypermethylation in human astrocytomas. Cancer Res. 2010;70:2718–27.
Xiong Z, Laird PW. COBRA: a sensitive and quantitative DNA methylation assay. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997;25:2532–4.
Yanagawa N, Tamura G, Oizumi H, Takahashi N, Shimazaki Y, Motoyama T. Promoter hypermethylation of tumor suppressor and tumor-related genes in non-small cell lung cancers. Cancer Sci. 2003;94:589–92.
Zhou D, Conrad C, Xia F, Park JS, Payer B, Yin Y, Lauwers GY, Thasler W, Lee JT, Avruch J, Bardeesy N. Mst1 and Mst2 maintain hepatocyte quiescence and suppress hepatocellular carcinoma development through inactivation of the Yap1 oncogene. Cancer Cell. 2009;16:425–38.
Zochbauer-Muller S, Fong KM, Virmani AK, Geradts J, Gazdar AF, Minna JD. Aberrant promoter methylation of multiple genes in non-small cell lung cancers. Cancer Res. 2001;61:249–55.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by NIH grant CA084469 and a grant from the University of California Tobacco Related Disease Research Program (TRDRP) (to G.P.P.)
Conflicts of interest
Under a licensing agreement between City of Hope and Active Motif (Carlsbad, CA), the methylated CpG island recovery assay (MIRA) technique was licensed to Active Motif, and the authors T.A.R. and G.P.P. are entitled to a share of the royalties received by City of Hope from sales of the licensed technology.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Tibor A. Rauch and Zunde Wang contributed equally to this work.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rauch, T.A., Wang, Z., Wu, X. et al. DNA methylation biomarkers for lung cancer. Tumor Biol. 33, 287–296 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13277-011-0282-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13277-011-0282-2