Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Social Climate for Sexual Minorities Predicts Well-Being Among Heterosexual Offspring of Lesbian and Gay Parents

  • Published:
Sexuality Research and Social Policy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Social climate—specifically, the level of support for sexual minorities in a given locale—helps to explain well-being among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. No published reports have examined whether well-being also varies as a function of social climate for family members of LGB individuals. We present results from two studies (Study 1, n = 69; Study 2, n = 70) demonstrating that social climate predicts well-being among adults reared by LGB parents, regardless of their own sexual orientation. Across both studies, population characteristics (e.g., density of same-sex couples in an area) emerged as the strongest and most consistent predictors of well-being. Some variables assessing local politics (e.g., LGB hate crime policy) also predicted well-being, though these associations were less robust. Overall, findings suggest that the social environment for sexual minorities is an important correlate of psychological adjustment for many Americans, regardless of their sexual orientation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We realize that life satisfaction and depressive symptoms are fundamentally different, even though they were highly correlated in this study. Therefore, we have provided separate regression analyses for each outcome in an online supplement. Overall trends are similar across outcomes, so we use the composite score here for the sake of parsimony.

  2. Of course, many variables related to participants’ family backgrounds might affect their reported well-being. In an additional analysis, we examined six of these potential confounds: (1) family type (adoption, donor insemination, divorced heterosexual parents), (2) age when the participant learned a parent was not heterosexual, (3) number of siblings, (4) sex of non-heterosexual parent, (5) relationship status of non-heterosexual parent while participant was growing up, and (6) parent the participant lived with while growing up (non-heterosexual vs. heterosexual). When entered simultaneously into a linear regression, these variables did not reliably predict well-being (R 2 = .12, p = 0.38), and they did not explain a notable proportion of the variance in well-being above and beyond the original predictors for the full sample (ΔR 2  = .06, p = .65) or for the subsample of heterosexual participants (ΔR 2  = .21, p = .10). Thus, additional variables pertaining to participants’ family backgrounds did not have a notable influence on reports of well-being in this study, providing additional confidence that social climate was a strong predictor of well-being above and beyond the effects of demographics.

  3. Again, we have provided separate regression analyses for life satisfaction and depressive symptoms in an online supplement. The findings are similar across outcomes, so we report the composite analysis here for the sake of parsimony.

  4. Again, other demographic variables might have affected reports of well-being. To examine these potential confounds, we examined five additional predictors: (1) family type (adoption, donor insemination, separated heterosexual parents); (2) current individual income; (3) current household income; (4) participant relationship status (single vs. coupled / married / partnered); and (5) religiosity (religious faith vs. agnostic / atheist). Regressing well-being onto these five variables resulted in a non-significant model (R 2 = .08, p = 0.77). We also included the background variables as a post hoc third step in the regression models, which did not explain a notable proportion of the variance in well-being above and beyond the original predictors for the full sample (ΔR 2  = .18, p = .31) or for the subsample of heterosexual participants (ΔR 2  = .05, p = .66). Thus, additional variables pertaining to participants’ family backgrounds did not have a notable influence on reports of well-being, providing additional confidence that social climate was a strong predictor of well-being after accounting for demographics.

References

  • Aiken, L. A., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. London, Sage: Newbury Park.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arm, J. R., Horne, S. G., & Levitt, H. M. (2009). Negotiating connection to GLBT experience: Family members’ experience of anti-GLBT movements and policies. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 82–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baird, R. M., & Rosenbaum, S. E. (2004). Same-sex marriage: The moral and legal debate. New York: Prometheus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgard, S. A., Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2005). Alcohol and tobacco use patterns among heterosexually and homosexually experienced California women. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77, 61–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, S. D., Keenan, C., Schober, C., & Mays, V. M. (2000). Estimates of alcohol use and clinical treatment needs among homosexually active men and women in the US population. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 1062–1071.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2000). Lifetime prevalence of suicidal attempts and affective disorders among men reporting same-sex sexual partners: Results from the NHANES III. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 573–578.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2009). Burden of psychiatric morbidity among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals in the California Quality of Life Survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 647–658.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1975). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS (3rd ed.). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gartrell, N., Deck, A., Rodas, C., Peyser, J., & Banks, A. (2005). The National Lesbian Family Study: 4 Interviews with the 10-year-old children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 518–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender? The Williams Institute. Retrieved from http://www3.law.ucla.edu/williamsinstitute/pdf/How-many-people-are-LGB-Final.pdf.

  • Gilman, S. E., Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Hughes, M., Ostrow, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). Risk of psychiatric disorders among individuals reporting same-sex sexual partners in the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 933–939.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, L. R., Johnson, J. A., Eber, H. W., Hogan, R., Ashton, M. C., Cloninger, R., & Gough, H. G. (2006). The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 84–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2011). Stigma, social context, and mental health: Lesbian and gay couples across the transition to adoptive parenthood. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 139–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2011). The social environment and suicide attempts in lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Pediatrics, 127, 896–903.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2009). State-level policies and psychiatric morbidity in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 2275–2281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Human Rights Campaign. (n.d.). Federal legislation. Retrieved from http://www.hrc.org/laws_and_elections/4732.htm

  • Husaini, B. A., Neff, J. A., Harrington, J. B., Hughes, M. D., & Stone, R. H. (1980). Depression in rural communities: Validating the CES-D Scale. Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 20–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine. (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: Building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krus, D. J., & Wilkinson, S. M. (1986). Demonstration of properties of a suppressor variable. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 18, 21–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C. (2002). The impact of belonging to a high school gay/straight alliance. The High School Journal, 85, 13–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leip, D. (2008). Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved from http://uselectionatlas.org/.

  • Lewin, K. L. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lick, D. J., Schmidt, K. M., & Patterson, C. J. (2011). The Rainbow Families Scale (RFS): A measure of experiences among individuals with lesbian and gay parents. Journal of Applied Measurement, 12, 222–241.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., & Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First- and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 562–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2001). Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1869–1876.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003a). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003b). Prejudice as stress: Conceptual and measurement problems. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 262–265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, J. K., & Weissman, M. M. (1980). Use of a self-report symptom scale to detect depression in a community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 1081–1084.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S. (2010). The psychology of residential mobility: Implications for the self, social relationships, and well-being. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 5–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, R. F., Cuthbertson, C., Lazarevic, V., & Goldberg, A. E. (2010). New developments in the field: Measuring community climate. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6, 214–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2011). When groups meet: The dynamics of intergroup conflict. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rentfrow, P. J., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2008). A theory of the emergence, persistence, and expression of geographic variation in psychological characteristics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 339–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rentfrow, P. J., Mellander, C., & Florida, R. (2009). Happy states of America: A state-level analysis of psychological, economic, and social well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 1073–1082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1991). Screening for adolescent depression: A comparison of depression scales. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 58–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D. B., & Horne, S. G. (2009). Marriage amendments and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 56–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D. B., Horne, S. G., Denton, F. N., & Huellemeier, J. D. (2010). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals’ psychological reactions to amendments denying access to civil marriage. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80, 302–310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J.K., Pearson, N.B., & Johnston, K. (2004). Day to day experiences with heterosexism: Heterosexist hassles as daily stressors. Unpublished manuscript

  • Tornello, S. L., & Patterson, C. J. (2012). Age, life pathways, and experiences of gay fathers: Life course perspective. Unpublished Manuscript

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported in part by a Harrison Foundation Grant, University of Virginia Dean’s Grant, and Reider-Otis Scholarship awarded to David J. Lick. Portions of these findings were presented at the 2011 annual meeting of the International Academy of Sex Researchers and the 2012 annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. We sincerely thank Anne “Bayly” Buck and Meredith Halliwell for their contributions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA

    David J. Lick, Samantha L. Tornello, Rachel G. Riskind, Karen M. Schmidt & Charlotte J. Patterson

  2. Department of Psychology, UCLA, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1563, USA

    David J. Lick

Authors
  1. David J. Lick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Samantha L. Tornello
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rachel G. Riskind
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Karen M. Schmidt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Charlotte J. Patterson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David J. Lick.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

(DOCX 84 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lick, D.J., Tornello, S.L., Riskind, R.G. et al. Social Climate for Sexual Minorities Predicts Well-Being Among Heterosexual Offspring of Lesbian and Gay Parents. Sex Res Soc Policy 9, 99–112 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-012-0081-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-012-0081-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation