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A Multicultural Perspective on Play and Learning in Primary School

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International Journal of Early Childhood Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the school’s conception of learning, the cultural aspect of children’s play has often been lacking. In different countries, it is emphasized that play is important for learning (Dockett and Fleer, Play and pedagogy in early childhood: Bending the rules. Harcourt Brace & Comp, Sydney, 1999; Lillemyr, Nordisk Pedagogik/Nordic Educational Research 22:38–52, 2002; Wood and Attfield, Play, learning and the early childhood curriculum, 2nd ed. Paul Chapman, London, 2005). Recent research has focused on social aspects and friendship as fundamental elements in learning activities. A sense of relatedness to culture is strongly linked to aspects of self-determination, respect, and sense of competence. The socio-cultural theory perspective is of special relevance in this concern, as presented in the theories of Vygotsky and Deci & Ryan (Deci and Ryan, In: Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem. Plenum Press, New York/London, 31–49, 1995; Vygotsky, Thought and language. The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, 1986), as this perspective is essential in promoting motivation for all students, irrespective of background. In a cross-cultural research study of student groups in Australia, USA ,and Norway; the intention was to identify cultural profiles among student groups on their interests in play, learning preference, self-concept and motivational orientation, applying scales, and interviews. Similarities and differences were documented among Aboriginal, Navajo, and Sámi students, compared with non-indigenous (majority) students, in interest in free vs. directed play and learning, aspects of self-concept, and motivation. A tendency of indigenous students to favor a traditional, teacher-directed concept of learning was found, compared to non-Indigenous students. Furthermore, indigenous students had a significantly lower self-concept, compared to non-indigenous students (presented elsewhere, Lillemyr et al., Students’ relatedness—a neglected aspect of motivation and learning? AARE International Conference in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 2009). In Norway, teachers of indigenous students used play to a lesser degree than teachers of majority students. Teachers in Arizona and Australia seldom used play in the classroom. Our research indicates friendship and sense of competence are important for students’ motivation to participate and achieve in school, partly confirming results from other research studies. The authors found a sense of relatedness to be quintessential in this concern. Educational consequences for play and learning in multicultural early years’ education are suggested.

Résumé

L'aspect culturel du jeu chez l'enfant a souvent été absent de la conception scolaire de l'apprentissage. Dans différents pays, il est souligné que le jeu est important pour apprendre (Dockett & Fleer, 1999; Lillemyr, 2002; Wood & Attfield, 2005). De récentes recherches se sont concentrées sur les aspects sociaux et l'amitié comme éléments fondamentaux des activités d'apprentissage. Le sens de relation à la culture est fortement lié à l’auto-détermination, au respect et au sentiment de compétence. La théorie socioculturelle apporte une perspective particulièrement pertinente à cet égard, telle que présentée dans les théories de Vygotsky et Deci & Ryan (Deci and Ryan, 1995; Vygotsky, 1986),étant donné que cette perspective est essentielle à l'émergence de la motivation chez tous les élèves, indépendamment de leur origine. Une étude interculturelle de groupes d'élèves d’Australie, des États-Unis et de Norvège, avait comme intention d'identifier les profils culturels chez ces groupes d'élèves quant à leur intérêt pour le jeu, leurs préférences d'apprentissage, leur concept de soi et l'orientation de leur motivation, au moyen d’échelles et d’entrevues. Des ressemblances et différences ont été trouvées chez les élèves aborigènes, navajos et lapons, comparativement aux élèves non indigènes (majoritaires) relativement à l’intérêt pour le jeu et l'apprentissage libres contre dirigés et à des aspects du concept de soi et de la motivation. Les résultats montrent chez les élèves indigènes une tendance à favoriser l'enseignement traditionnel et l'apprentissage dirigé par un enseignant, comparativement aux élèves non indigènes. De plus, les élèves indigènes montrent un concept de soi significativement inférieur à celui des élèves non indigènes (résultats présentés dans Lillemyr et al. 2009). En Norvège, les enseignants d'élèves indigènes utilisent le jeu à un degré moindre que les enseignants d'élèves non indigènes. Les enseignants d'Arizona et d’Australie utilisent rarement le jeu en classe. Notre recherche indique que l'amitié et le sentiment de compétence sont importants pour la motivation des élèves à participer et réussir à l'école, ce qui confirme partiellement les résultats d'autres études. Nous estimons que le sentiment d'appartenance est quintessentiel à cet égard. Nous suggérons qu’il y a des conséquences éducationnelles du jeu et de l'apprentissage dans les premières années d’éducation multiculturelle.

Resumen

Dentro del concepto de aprendizaje en la escuela, el aspecto cultural del juego infantil ha estado a menudo ausente. En diversos países se ha enfatizado que el juego es importante para el aprender (Dockett & Fleer, 1999; Lillemyr, 2002; Wood Attfield, 2005). Investigaciónes recientes en este tema han centrado su foco en la amistad y otros aspectos sociales como elementos fundamentales de la actividad del aprendizaje. Este sentido de coneccion a lo cultural se liga fuertemente a los aspectos de la autodeterminación, del respeto y del sentido de ser competente. La perspectiva de la teoría sociocultural es de especial relevancia en este sentido, según lo presentado en las teorías de Vygotsky y de Deci & Ryan (Deci y Ryan, 1995; Vygotsky, 1986). Esta perspectiva es fundamental en el fomento de la motivación de los alumnos independientemente de los orginenes de estos. En un estudio intercultural (tomando en uso escalas de registro y entrevistas) de grupos de alumnos en Australia, E.E.U.U. y Noruega, donde la intención del studio era: identificar perfiles culturales entre grupos de alumnos, tanto en sus intereses en el juego, preferencias en el modo del aprendizaje, concepto de sí mismos y la orientación de la motivación. Fueron documentadas similitudes y diferencias en los alumnos de origen aborígen, Navajo y Sámi, en comparacion con los alumnos no-indígenas pertenecientes a la mayoría de la poblacion; en el interes entre el juego libre versus juego organizado y la enseñanza, en aspectos del concepto de si mismos, y en la motivacion. Tambien fue encontrada una inclinacion entre los alumnos indígenas a favorecer un concepto tradicional del aprendizaje , con mayor grado de control por parte del maestro, en comparacion a los alumnos no-Indígenas. Además, los alumnos indígenas muestran en este estudio un concepto de sí mismo perceptiblemente más bajo, comparado a los alumnos no-indígenas (presentados en otro articulo por Lillemyr y otros 2009). En Noruega los maestros de alumnos indígenas usan el juego en forma menor que los maestros de los alumnos pertenecientes a la mayoria. Los maestros en Arizona y Australia usan escasamente el juego en la sala de clases. Nuestra investigación indica que la amistad y el sentido de capacidad son importantes para la motivación de los alumnos en su actuacion y participacion en la escuela, resultados en parte confirmados en otros estudios. En esta investigación encontramos que el sentido de la relación cultural y/o social es el aspecto mas significativo. Esto hace suponer consecuencias pedagógicas del juego y la enseñanza en la educación preescolar y los primeros años escolares.

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Notes

  1. Ethnic Norwegians are understood to be Norwegians apart from indigenous and multicultural groups of Norwegians; as used in this article in the category “ethnic Norwegian students.”

  2. The four conditions were presented as follows:Interest in free play/learning – How interested are you in participating in free play/learning, that is play/learning where you can decide what to play/learn and how to play/learn (4-point scale)Interest in directed play/learning – How interested are you in participating in directed play/learning, that is play/learning where what and how to play/learn is decided mostly by the teacher/an adult.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Queen Maud’s University College of Early Childhood Education, Trondheim, Norway

    Ole Fredrik Lillemyr & Frode Søbstad

  2. University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia

    Kurt Marder

  3. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    Terri Flowerday

Authors
  1. Ole Fredrik Lillemyr
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  2. Frode Søbstad
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  3. Kurt Marder
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  4. Terri Flowerday
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ole Fredrik Lillemyr.

Appendix

Appendix

The Socio-Cultural Perspective on Play and Learning Project, 2006

Interview Forms, Australia

Interview Guide: Students

I am now going to ask you some questions about how you think of school and about how you feel you are doing at school. For all students to like school as much as possible, we are going to ask you and other students from your school and other schools what you think is good about school. We will ask you other questions also. For example, what do you like to do at school? What do you like to do at home? We will also ask you to tell us what you think about your teachers.

Everything you tell me will be kept private and no one else will know the answers you give to me questions—not the principal, not your teachers, no-one outside of this room. I will write down what you say or we can tape the interview if you don’t mind being taped. If you want me to turn off the tape recorder at any point just let me know. If you want to stop the interview for any reason, just let me know. If you don’t want to continue answering my questions after we start, just let me know.

Your participation in this interview is voluntary, and you can change your mind about being interviewed at any time. You don’t have to do the interview if you don’t want to. If you don’t understand any of the questions, or you find them difficult to answer, just let me know. Take your time. This is not a test. There is no right or wrong answers. You are simply giving me your opinion about things. I am interested to know what you think about things like school, learning, and playing.

Are you ready to answer? Here is the first one.

The Socio-Cultural Perspective on Play and Learning Project, 2006

Questions for Students in Australia

() Boy

() Girl

Age:__________

Grade:______

Cultural/Ethnic background:____________ (E.g. Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islander or English-Australian)

  1. 1.

    (a) What do you like/dislike about school? Tell me about it.

    (b) Do you think school is fun?

    (c) What would you like to do more of in your lessons to make school more fun?

  2. 2.

    What subjects in school do you like best?

  3. 3.

    What do you like to do during recess and lunchtime?

  4. 4.

    At home, what do you prefer do to in your spare time?

  5. 5.

    (a) After school and on weekends do you spend much time with your parents or other adult family members?

    (b) What kinds of things do you do with your parents or other adult family members/community/neighborhood members?

  6. 6.

    Do you spend much time with friends of your own age in your spare time?

  7. 7.

    Do you get along well with the other students at school?

  8. 8.

    (a) Do you do well at school? (Very well? Average? Not so well?)

    (b) How do you think girls do at school?

    (c) How do you think boys do at school?

    (d) Why do you think this way?

  9. 9.

    Are you interested in what is going on at school?

  10. 10.

    Do you plan to go to college or university after finishing school?

  11. 11.

    Do you prefer to do things by yourself, or do you prefer to be instructed/directed/guided by teachers or other relevant adults when doing school work or when you are learning?

  12. 12.

    Is getting good grades/doing well at school important for you?

  13. 13.

    Do you play a lot? At home? At school? Where do you play?

  14. 14.

    (a) Does your teacher make learning fun?

    (b) Do you play during lessons?

    (c) Do you think being able to play makes learning better for you/helps you enjoy learning/school more?

    (d) Describe a good teacher for me.

  15. 15.

    Do you like teachers to always instruct/direct you or would you prefer teachers to let you work on your own more and make more decisions for yourself?

  16. 16.

    Do you think students should influence what is going on in the classroom?

  17. 17.

    Would you like students to have influence on how to work in school?

  18. 18.

    Do you speak a different language at home compared to what you speak at school?

  19. 19.

    Do you think it is important to do well in school? Why do you think so?

  20. 20.

    Do you feel that your background and traditions are respected at school (by class mates, teachers, and leaders)?

Interview Guide: Teachers

I am now going to ask you some questions about how you think your Year 3 or 4 students feel about themselves at school; their sense of self, their interests in play, their motivation, their experience with school learning. To obtain information about how much students like school, we will ask/have asked them certain questions. However, we would like to discover what you know, or believe, your students think about school, what they like to do at school, and what they like to do when they are not at school. We would also like you to reflect on what you think students like about teachers, and what you think the challenges are facing 8–10 year olds at school and at home.

Everything you tell me will be confidential. Your participation will remain anonymous. We will write down your responses, or tape them, if you have no objections. Your participation is of course voluntary.

Should you find any of the questions difficult to answer or you choose not to answer any question, please let me know. It is hoped, however, that you will try to answer all questions so as to ensure we are able to maximize the volume, scope and quality of the data we are collecting.

Are you ready? Here is the first one.

Thank you very much for your cooperation

Questions for teachers in Australia

() Male

() Female

Age group 25–30 years, 30–35 years, 35–40 years, etc.:……….

Number of years of teaching experience:

Cultural/Ethnic Background:……………………………………………………….

  1. 1.

    In general, do you think that your students are motivated and engaged in the teaching and learning process? Could you explain this?

  2. 2.

    What school subjects do they appear to like best? Are there differences between boys and girls?

  3. 3.

    How do they spend their time outside school? For example, watching TV, playing, sports, etc.?

  4. 4.

    Are the students close to their parents and the rest of the family? Do they engage in activities with parents, other adults in the family and in the neighborhood?

  5. 5.

    Do you believe that your students get on well with each other at school?

  6. 6.

    Do you think girls or boys, in general, perform better educationally? Why?

  7. 7.

    What is your estimate of the percentage of your students you believe may go on to further study?

  8. 8.

    (a) To what extent do your students work independently, that is, with minimal supervision/instruction, during lessons?

    (b) Do your students demonstrate a preference to be assisted/directed/instructed by you or other relevant personnel during lessons or during extra-curricula activities?

    (c) Do you think there are differences between boys and girls in this concern?

  9. 9.

    Do you feel that obtaining good grades/results is important to your students?

  10. 10.

    Do they engage in free play a lot? At home? In school? Where do they play?

  11. 11.

    Do you use play related to school subjects to make learning more interesting? How?

  12. 12.

    To what extent do your students influence what teaching/learning activities take place during lessons? Do they have choices offered to them? If so, please exemplify.

  13. 13.

    Do you find that your students are interested in having influence on how they can work in the classroom? Please explain.

  14. 14.

    (a) What language/s do your students speak at home?

    (b) Do any of your students speak a language other than Standard English at school? If so, please provide details.

  15. 15.

    Are the students’ background and traditions respected (by fellow students and teachers) at school? Which cultural backgrounds are represented?

  16. 16.

    What do you believe is the biggest challenge confronting Aboriginal children at your school?

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Lillemyr, O.F., Søbstad, F., Marder, K. et al. A Multicultural Perspective on Play and Learning in Primary School. IJEC 43, 43–65 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-010-0021-7

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-010-0021-7

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