Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

On the Relation Between Mindfulness and Depressive Symptoms: Rumination as a Possible Mediator

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The extent to which rumination mediates the relation between mindfulness skills and depressive symptoms in nonclinical undergraduates (N = 254) was examined. Measures of mindfulness (Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills), ruminative brooding and reflective pondering (Ruminative Response Scale), and depressive symptomatology (Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology) were administered. The contribution of mindfulness and rumination subscales was investigated in mediation analyses using the bootstrapping methodology. The relations among the mindfulness scales and rumination and depressive symptomatology were investigated. The results suggest that brooding partially mediated the relation from awareness to depressive symptomatology and from depressive symptomatology to awareness (higher levels of awareness result in lower levels of brooding and, as a result, lower levels of depressive symptomatology and vice versa). Brooding fully mediated the relation from accepting without judgment to depressive symptomatology (higher levels of accepting without judgment result in lower levels of brooding, which results in lower levels of depressive symptomatology). Brooding partially mediated the relation from depressive symptomatology to accepting without judgment (higher levels of depressive symptomatology result in higher levels of brooding and thus in lower levels of accepting without judgment). Reflective pondering fully mediated the relation from depressive symptomatology to observing (higher levels of depressive symptomatology result in higher levels of reflective pondering and thus in higher levels of observing). Mindful observing was negatively correlated with awareness and accepting without judgment. Mindful describing was unrelated to rumination. The current study helps clarify the relations between mindfulness and depression, as influenced by rumination. A necessary step will be to investigate these relations in a clinical population.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report. The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Assessment, 11, 191–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-compassion: conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15, 289–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, C., Kuyken, W., Bohus, M., Heidenreich, T., Johannes, M., & Steil, R. (2010). The psychometric properties of the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills in clinical populations. Assessment, 17, 220–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal, Z., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D., Ray, W. J., & Stoeber, J. (1998). Worry: A cognitive phenomenon intimately linked to affective, physiological, and interpersonal behavioural processes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 561–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burwell, R. A., & Shirk, S. R. (2007). Subtypes of rumination in adolescence: Associations between brooding, reflection, depressive symptoms, and coping. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 56–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deikman, A. J. (1982). The observing self: Mysticism and psychotherapy. Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunkley, D. M., & Grilo, C. M. (2007). Self-criticism, low self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and over-evaluation of shape and weight in binge eating disorder patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 139–149.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fetterman, A. K., Robinson, M. D., Ode, S., & Gordon, K. K. (2010). Neuroticism as a risk factor for behavioural dysregulation: A mindfulness-mediation perspective. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29, 301–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feltman, R., Robinson, M. D., & Ode, S. (2009). Mindfulness as a moderator of neuroticism-outcome relations: A self-regulation perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 953–961.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Berrocal, P., Alcaide, R., Extremera, N., & Pizarro, D. (2006). The role of emotional intelligence in anxiety and depression among adolescents. Individual Differences Research, 4, 16–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Germer, C. K. (2009). The mindful path to self-compassion: Freeing yourself from destructive thoughts and emotions. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, E. H., Lundh, L. G., Homman, A., & Wångby-Lundh, M. (2009). Measuring mindfulness: Pilot studies with the Swedish versions of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale and the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 38, 2–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. (1990). Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 156–176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., Miranda, J., & Segal, Z. V. (1998). Cognitive vulnerability to depression. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., & Bell, I. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination and distraction. Annals of Behavioural Medicine, 33, 11–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joormann, J., Dkane, M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2006). Adaptive and maladaptive components of rumination? Diagnostic specificity and relation to depressive biases. Behaviour Therapy, 37, 269–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiken, L. G. (2011). Looking up: Mindfulness increases positive judgments and reduces negativity bias. Social Psychology and Personality Science, 2, 425–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee-Flynn, S. C. (2011). Daily cognitive appraisals, daily affect, and long-term depressive symptoms: The role of self-esteem and self-concept clarity in the stress process. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luminet, O. (2004). Measurement of depressive rumination and associated constructs. In C. Papageorgiou & A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 187–215). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., & Tkach, C. (2004). The consequences of dysphoric rumination. In C. Papageorgiou & A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 21–42). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lo, C., Ho, S. M. Y., & Hollon, S. D. (2008). The effects of rumination and negative cognitive styles on depression: A mediation analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 487–495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, S. H., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: Replication and exploration of differential relapse prevention effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 31–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michalak, J. (2011). Buffering low self-esteem: The effect of mindful acceptance on the relationship between self-esteem and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 751–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moberly, N. J., & Watkins, E. R. (2008). Ruminative self-focus and negative affect: An experience sampling study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 314–323.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115–121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ornel, J., Von Korff, M., Van Den Bink, W., Katon, W., Brilman, E., & Oldehinkel, T. (1993). Depression, anxiety, and social disability show synchrony of change in primary care patients. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 385–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raes, F., Hermans, D., & Eelen, P. (2003). De Nederlandstalige versie van de Ruminative Response Scale (RRS-NL) en de Rumination on Sadness Scale (RSS-NL). Gedragstherapie, 30, 147–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rüsch, N., Corrigan, P. W., Todd, A. R., & Bodenhausen, G. (2010). Implicit self-stigma in people with mental illness. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198, 150–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rush, A. J., Triveldi, M. H., Ibrahim, H. M., Carmody, T. J., Arnow, B., Klein, D. N., Markowitz, J. C., Ninan, P. T., Kornstein, S., Manber, R., Thase, M. E., Kocsis, J. H., & Keller, M. B. (2003). The 16-item Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS), clinician rating (QIDS-C), and self-report (QIDS-SR): A psychometric evaluation in patients with chronic major depression. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 54, 573–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saklofske, D. H., Kelly, I. W., & Janzen, B. L. (1995). Neuroticism, depression, and depression proneness. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 27–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C., Tsao, J. C. I., Alden, L. E., & Craske, M. G. (2000). Worry and rumination: Repetitive thought as a concomitant and predictor of negative mood. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 671–688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shahar, B., Britton, W. B., Sbarra, D. A., Figueredo, A. J., & Bootzin, R. R. (2010). Mechanisms of change in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: Preliminary evidence from a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 3, 402–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 372–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 260–264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., Ridgeway, V. A., Soulsby, J. M., & Lau, M. A. (2000). Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 616–623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verhaegen, P., Joormann, J., & Khan, R. (2005). Why we sing the blues: The relation between self-reflective rumination, mood, and creativity. Emotion, 5, 226–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verplanken, B., Friborg, O., Wang, C. E., Trafimow, D., & Woolf, K. (2007). Mental habits: Metacognitive reflection on negative self-thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 526–541.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, E. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 163–206.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, E., Scott, J., Wingrove, J., Rimes, K., Bathurst, N., Steiner, H., Kenell-Webb, S., Moulds, M., & Malliaris, Y. (2007). Rumination-focused cognitive behaviour therapy for residual depression: A case series. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2144–2154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D. (2000). Mood and temperament. New York: Guildford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, K. B., Stewart, A., Hays, R. D., Burnam, M. A., Rogers, W., Daniels, M., Berry, S., Greenfield, S., & Ware, J. (1989). The functioning and well-being of depressed patients: Results from the Medical Outcomes Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 262, 914–919.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, K. B., Burnam, M. A., Rogers, W., Hays, R., & Camp, P. (1992). The course of depression in adult outpatients: Results from the Medical Outcomes Study. Archive of General Psychiatry, 49, 788–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. M. G. (2008). Mindfulness, depression and modes of mind. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 721–733.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2008). The global burden of disease: 2004 update. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/2004_report_update/en/index.html

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands

    Jessica Alleva, Jeffrey Roelofs, Marisol Voncken, Yvo Meevissen & Hugo Alberts

Authors
  1. Jessica Alleva
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jeffrey Roelofs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marisol Voncken
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yvo Meevissen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Hugo Alberts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jessica Alleva.

Additional information

The contribution of Alleva was supported by NWO grant 404-10-118: Novel strategies to enhance body satisfaction.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Alleva, J., Roelofs, J., Voncken, M. et al. On the Relation Between Mindfulness and Depressive Symptoms: Rumination as a Possible Mediator. Mindfulness 5, 72–79 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0153-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0153-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation