Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Measuring Mindfulness: First Steps Towards the Development of a Comprehensive Mindfulness Scale

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study describes the development of and results obtained from the first version of a new mindfulness scale: the Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences beta (CHIME-β). The aim of the present analysis was to investigate two relevant open questions in mindfulness assessment: (1) the coverage of aspects of mindfulness and (2) the type of interrelationships among these aspects. A review of the aspects of mindfulness assessed by eight currently available mindfulness questionnaires led to the identification of nine aspects of mindfulness. The CHIME-β was constructed in order to cover each of these aspects in a balanced way. Initially, principal component and confirmatory factor analyses, as well as reliability and validity analyses, were performed in the entire sample (n = 313) of individuals from the general population and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) groups. The factor structure that emerged from this analysis was further investigated in meditation-trained individuals (n = 144) who had just completed an MBSR intervention. Results suggested a four-factor structure underlying the nine aspects proposed. The relationship between these mindfulness factors appears to be influenced by the degree of meditation experience. In fact, the mindfulness factors showed a greater interconnectedness among mediation-trained participants. Finally, data suggest that a non-avoidant stance plays a central role in mindfulness, while the capacity to put inner experiences into words may be related to mindfulness rather than a component of the construct.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acock, A. C. (2005). Working with missing values. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 1012–1028.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. (Ed.). (2010). Assessing mindfulness and acceptance processes in clients: Illuminating the theory and practice of change. Oakland: Context Press/New Harbinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: the Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills. Assessment, 11, 191–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13, 27–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandalos, D. L., & Finney, S. J. (2001). Item parceling issues in structural equation modeling (pp. 269–296). In G. A. Marcoulides, & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), New developments and techniques in structural equation modeling (pp. 269–296). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

  • Bergomi, C. (2007). Achtsamkeit, buddhistische Meditation und psychische Gesundheit (Unpublished master’s thesis). Psychology Department, University of Bern, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www.upd.unibe.ch/research/papers/Liz_Bergomi.pdf.

  • Berking, M., & Znoj, H. (2008). Entwicklung und Validierung eines Fragebogens zur standardisierten Selbsteinschätzung emotionaler Kompetenzen (SEK-27). Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie, Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 56, 141–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berking, M., Wupperman, P., Reichardt, A., Pejic, T., Dippel, A., & Znoj, H. (2008). General emotion-regulation skills as a treatment target in psychotherapy. Behavior Research and Therapy, 46, 1230–1237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Perils and promises in defining and measuring mindfulness: observations from experience. Journal of Clinical Psychology, Science & Practice, 11, 242–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., West, A. M., Loverich, T. M., & Biegel, G. M. (2011). Assessing adolescent mindfulness: Validation of an adapted mindful attention awareness scale in adolescent normative and psychiatric populations. Psychological Assessment, in press: Epub ahead of print retrieved May 10, 2011, doi: 10.1037/a0021338.

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchheld, N., Grossman, P., & Walach, H. (2001). Measuring mindfulness in insight meditation (Vipassana) and meditation-based psychotherapy: the development of the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research, 1, 11–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burg, J., & Michalak, J. (2010). Assessing mindfulness: Is there an alternative to questionnaires? Talk given at the XL European Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies Congress, Milan, Italy.

  • Cardaciotto, L. (2005). Assessing mindfulness: The development of a bi-dimensional measure of awareness and acceptance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Drexel University, Philadelphia.

  • Cardaciotto, L., Herbert, J. D., Forman, E. M., Moitra, E., & Farrow, V. (2008). The assessment of present-moment awareness and acceptance: the Philadelphia mindfulness scale. Assessment, 15, 204–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, R. B. (1974). Radial item parcel factoring vs. item factoring in defining personality structure in questionnaires: theory and experimental checks. Australian Journal of Psychology, 26, 103–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick, P., Hember, M., Symes, J., Peters, E., Kuipers, E., & Dagnan, D. (2008). Responding mindfully to unpleasant thoughts and images: reliability and validity of the Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (SMQ). British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 451–455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christopher, M. S., Charoensuk, S., Gilbert, B. D., Neary, T. J., & Pearce, K. L. (2009). Mindfulness in Thailand and the United States: a case of apples versus oranges? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 590–612.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coffey, K. A., & Hartman, M. (2008). Mechanisms of action in the inverse relationship between mindfulness and psychological distress. Complementary Health Practice Review, 13, 79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, S. E., Chwala, N., Hsu, S. H., Grow, J., Otto, J. M., & Marlatt, G. A. (2009). Language-based measures of mindfulness: initial validity and clinical utility. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 743–749.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis, Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation: A Pear-reviewed Electronic Journal, 10, 1–9. Retrieved from http://pareonline.net/pdf/v10n7.pdf.

  • Cudeck, R., & Browne, M. W. (1983). Cross-validation of covariance structures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 18, 147–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dimidjian, S., & Linehan, M. M. (2003). Defining an agenda for future research on the clinical application of mindfulness practice. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 166–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobkin, P. L. (2008). Mindfulness-based stress reduction: what processes are at work? Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 14, 8–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everitt, B. S. (2002). The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics, 2nd Edition, CUP.

  • Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4, 272–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, G. C., Hayes, A. M., Kumar, S. M., Greeson, J. G., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: the development and initial validation of the cognitive and affective mindfulness scale-revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29, 177–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franke, G. H. (2000). Brief symptom inventory (BSI). Göttingen: Beltz.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frewen, P. A., Evans, El M., Maraj, N., Dozois, D. J. A., & Partridge, K. (2008). Letting go: mindfulness and negative automatic thinking. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 758–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59, 93–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549–576.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greco, L. A., Baer, R. A., & Smith, G. T. (2011). Assessing mindfulness in children and adolescents: Development and validation of the child and adolescent mindfulness measure (CAMM). Psychological Assessment, in press: Epub ahead of print retrieved May 10, 2011, doi: 10.1037/a0022819.

  • Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: a meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 35–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunaratana, B. H. (2002). Mindfulness in plain English. Somerville: Wisdom.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. (2004). Clarifying the construct of mindfulness in the context of emotion regulation and the process of change in therapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 255–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., & Wilson, K. G. (2003). Mindfulness: method and process. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 161–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. D. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: a functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152–1168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heidenreich, T., Zarbock, G., Ströhle, G., & Michalak, J. (September, 2011). The German version of the five-facet mindfulness questionnnaire (FFMQ): Psychometric properties and relationship with the Schema Mode Inventory. Talk given at the 41st European Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies Congress, Reykjavík, Iceland.

  • Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 169–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hough, L. M., & Schneider, R. J. (1995). Personality traits, taxonomies, and applications in organizations. In K. R. Murphy (Ed.), Individuals and behavior in organizations (pp. 31–88). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • John, O. P., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2000). Measurement: reliability, construct validation, and scale construction. In H. T. Reis &C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 339–369). New York: Cambridge.

  • Jolliffe, I. T. (2002). Principal component analysis, Springer series in statistics (2nd ed.). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jöreskog, K. G. (1999). How large can a standardized coefficient be? Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International. Available at www.ssicentral.com.

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Dell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau, M., Bishop, S. R., Segal, Z. V., Buis, T., Anderson, N. D., Carlson, L., et al. (2006). The Toronto mindfulness scale: development and validation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1445–1467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Tate, E. B. (2007). The multi-faceted nature of mindfulness. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 251–255. doi:10.1080/10478400701598355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, J., Bowen, S., & Marlatt, G. A. (2005). Spirituality, mindfulness and substance abuse. Addict Behavior, 30, 1335–1341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive behavioral therapy of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4, 84–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malinowski, P. (2008). Mindfulness as psychological dimension: concepts and applications. Irish Journal of Psychology, 29, 153–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Hau, K. T., & Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and danger in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling, 11, 320–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Hau, K. T., & Grayson, D. (2005). Goodness of fit evaluation in structural equation modeling. In Maydeu-Olivares, A. & McArdle, J. (Eds.), Contemporary Psychometrics: A festschrift to Roderick P. McDonald (pp. 275–340). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

  • O’Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32, 396–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H. S., Dailey, R., & Lemus, D. (2002). The use of exploratory factor analysis and principal components analysis in communication research. Human Communication Research, 28, 562–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8, 23–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: a new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L., Astin, J., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72, 373–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shigaki, C. L., Glass, B., & Schopp, L. H. (2006). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in medical settings. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 13, 209–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. T., & McCarthy, D. M. (1995). Methodological considerations in the refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7, 300–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. T., Fischer, S., & Fister, S. M. (2003). Incremental validity principles in test construction. Psychological Assessment, 15, 467–477.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D. (1999). Metacognition, mindfulness and modification of mood disorders. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 5, 146–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., & Williams, J. M. G. (1995). How does cognitive therapy prevent relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 25–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. (2007). Everyday mindfulness and mindfulness meditation: overlapping constructs or not? Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1875–1885.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomarken, A. J., & Waller, N. G. (2005). Structural equation modeling: strengths, limitations, and misconceptions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 31–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmüller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006). Measuring mindfulness—the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1543–1555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 57–75). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zwick, W. R., & Velicer, W. F. (1986). Factors influencing five rules for determining the number of components to retain. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 432–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University Hospital of Psychiatry, Department of Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Laupenstrasse 49, CH-3010, Bern, Switzerland

    Claudia Bergomi, Wolfgang Tschacher & Zeno Kupper

Authors
  1. Claudia Bergomi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Wolfgang Tschacher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zeno Kupper
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claudia Bergomi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bergomi, C., Tschacher, W. & Kupper, Z. Measuring Mindfulness: First Steps Towards the Development of a Comprehensive Mindfulness Scale. Mindfulness 4, 18–32 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0102-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0102-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation