Abstract
A growing literature supporting the efficacy and effectiveness of mindfulness and its application has developed over the past decade. Reliable and valid measurement of mindfulness is an essential component of this emerging area. Therefore, in this study, a confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the factor structure of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al. (Assessment 13:27–45, 2006)) among a mixed sample of meditators and non-meditators. However, unlike the original FFMQ validation study in which item parceling was used, in this study individual items were used as indicators, providing an item-level test of the FFMQ model fit. Overall, the hierarchical FFMQ model using item-level indicators provided a good fit to the data. The reliability and validity of each of the five facets of the FFMQ (Observing, Describing, Acting with Awareness, Nonreactivity, Nonjudging) was also acceptable.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Assessment, 11, 191–206.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13, 27–45.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Lykins, E., Button, D., Krietemeyer, J., Sauer, S., Walsh, E., Duggan, D., & Williams, J. M. G. (2008). Construct validity of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in meditating and nonmeditating samples. Assessment, 15, 329–342.
Baer, R. A., Samuel, D. B., & Lykins, E. L. (2011). Differential item functioning on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire is minimal in demographically matched mediators and non-mediators. Assessment, 18, 3–10.
Bandalos, D. L., & Finney, S. J. (2001). Item parceling issues in structural equation modeling. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), New developments and techniques in structural equation modeling (pp. 269–296). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indices in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.
Birnbaum, M. H. (2004). Human research and data collection via the Internet. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 803–832.
Bohlmeijer, E., ten Klooster, P. M., Fledderus, M., Veehof, M., & Baer, R. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in depressed adults and development of a short form. Assessment, 18, 308–320.
Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. W. (2007). Mindfulness: theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Buchheld, N., Grossman, P., & Walach, H. (2001). Measuring mindfulness in insight meditation (vipassana) and meditation-based psychotherapy: the development of the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research, 1, 11–34.
Cash, M., & Whittingham, K. (2010). What facets of mindfulness contribute to psychological wellbeing and depressive, anxious, and stress related symptomatology. Mindfulness, 1, 177–182.
Chadwick, P., Hember, M., Symes, J., Peters, E., Kuipers, E., & Dagnan, D. (2008). Responding mindfully to unpleasant thoughts and images: reliability and validity of the Southampton mindfulness questionnaire (SMQ). British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 451–455.
Christopher, M. S., Charoensuk, S., Gilbert, B. D., Neary, T. J., & Pearce, K. L. (2009). Mindfulness in Thailand and the United States: a case of apples versus oranges? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 590–612.
Coffman, D. L., & McCallum, R. C. (2005). Using parcels to convert path analysis models into latent variable models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 235–259.
Dekeyser, M., Leijssen, M., Leysen, S., & Dewulf, D. (2008). Mindfulness skills and interpersonal behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 1235–1245.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
Fernandez, A. C., Wood, M. D., Stein, L. A. R., & Rossi, J. S. (2010). Measuring mindfulness and examining its relationship with alcohol use and negative consequences. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 24, 608–616.
Germer, C. K., Siegel, R. D., & Fulton, P. R. (Eds.). (2005). Mindfulness and psychotherapy. New York: Guilford.
Gosling, S., Vazire, S., Srivatsava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59, 93–104.
Grossman, P. (2008). On measuring mindfulness in psychosomatic and psychological research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64, 405–408.
Grossman, P., & Van Dam, N. (2011). Mindfulness by any other name: Trials and tribulations of Sati in western psychology and science. Contemporary Buddhism, 12, 219–239.
Hanh, T. N. (1998). The heart of the Buddha’s teachings: Transforming suffering into peace, joy, and liberation. New York: Broadway.
Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. C. (2004). Clarifying the construct of mindfulness in the context of emotion regulation and the process of change in therapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 255–262.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
Isenberg, L. (2009). Mindfulness—life with attention and awareness: test–retest reliability of the FFMQ for Dutch fibromyalgia patients. Thesis, University of Twente.
Jöreskog, K. G. (2004). Structural equation modeling with ordinal variables using LISREL (2nd ed.). Chicago: Scientific Software.
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (2006). LISREL 8.80. Chicago: Scientific Software.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: The program of the Stress Reduction Clinic at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center. New York: Delta.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–156.
Lau, M. A., Bishop, S. R., Segal, Z. V., Buis, T., Anderson, N. D., Carlson, L., et al. (2006). The Toronto Mindfulness Scale: development and validation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1445–1467.
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widamon, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173.
Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & Hau, K. Y. (1996). An evaluation of incremental fit indices: A clarification of mathematical and empirical properties. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumaker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques (pp. 315–353). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Psychological Research on the Net (2010). Sponsored by Hanover College Psychology Department, Retrieved April 20, 2010. http://psych.hanover.edu/research/exponnet.html
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CED-D Scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman, S. L., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T. F. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure and health (pp. 125–154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. Von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variable analysis: applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66(4), 507–514.
Van Dam, N. T., Earleywine, M., & Danoff-Burg, S. (2009). Differential item functioning across meditators and non-meditators on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 516–521.
Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmuller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006). Measuring mindfulness—the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1543–1555.
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: a content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 806–838.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Christopher, M.S., Neuser, N.J., Michael, P.G. et al. Exploring the Psychometric Properties of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. Mindfulness 3, 124–131 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0086-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0086-x