Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

An integrated indexical approach in assessing physico-chemical water quality for drinking purposes in the Nkalagu area, southeastern Nigeria

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this study, water supplies for the two distinct climatic seasons, wet and dry seasons, were evaluated. This was carried out to determine the degree of contamination and whether the water supplies were safe for human consumption. In light of this, four water quality indices; the vector modulus of Pollution Index (PIvector), Entropy-weighted Water Quality Index (EWQI), Integrated Water Quality Index (IWQI), and Modified Water Quality Index (MWQI) were integrated. Based on the results, the pH of the analyzed water samples varied from 6.02 to 7.92 with a mean value of 7.2 during the wet season and from 5.25 to 8.25 with a mean value of 6.82 during the dry season. A generic quality assessment study revealed that Pb, As, during the wet season and Pb, As, and Mn during the dry season has the greatest effects on the region's water supplies. According to the indices, PIvector classified approximately 71.43% of the water during the wet season as unpolluted and 28.57% as polluted, and 37.14% of the water during the dry season as unpolluted and 62.86% as polluted. Similarly, the EWQI classified 65.71% as safe water and 34.28% as unfit for human consumption during the wet season, whereas, 34.28% and 65.72% as safe and unfit, respectively for the dry season. According to IWQI, during the wet season, 25.7% of the water is considered acceptable for drinking, while 74.3% is unsafe, and during the dry season, 14.85% is acceptable and 85.15% is unsafe. The MWQI results indicated that the water samples for the wet season were classed as "fair" water suggesting they are occasionally threatened while, for the dry season as “marginal” water indicating they are frequently threatened. Summarily, the results show that the water resources are safer and less contaminated in the wet season than in the dry season, which is attributed to the impact of rainfall, which reduces the mobility of contaminants, as well as the influence of vegetation cover.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

(Source: Fieldwork)

Fig. 2

(Source: Fieldwork)

Fig. 3

(Source: Fieldwork)

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adimalla N, Qian H, Li P (2020) Entropy water quality index and probabilistic health risk assessment from geochemistry of groundwater in hard rock terrain of Nanganur County, South India. Geochemistry 80(4):125544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2019.125544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2007) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Division of Toxicology 1600, Atlanta, GA 30333

  • Aleke CG, Okogbue CO, Aghamelu OP, Nnaji NJ (2016) Hydrogeological potential and qualitative assessment of groundwater from the Ajali Sandstone at Ninth Mile area, southeastern Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci 75:290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s126-65-015-4843-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Public Health Association (APHA) (2012) Standards methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 22nd edn. American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA) and Water Environment Federation (WEF), New York, p 1360

    Google Scholar 

  • Annapoorna H, Janardhana MR (2015) Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking purpose in rural areas surrounding a defunct copper mine. Aquat Procedia 4:685–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.088

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barbera R, Farre R, Mesado D (1991) Determination of cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel and zinc in diets: development of a method. Nahrung 35(7):683–687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benkheil J (1989) The origin and evolution of the Cretaceous Benue Trough, Nigeria. J Afr Earth Sci 8:251–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clewell HJ, Lawrence GA, Calne DB (2003) Determination of an occupational exposure guideline for manganese using the benchmark method. Risk Anal 23(5):1031–1046

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies BE, Bowman C, Davies TC, Sellinus O (2005) Medical geology: perspectives and prospects. Essentials of medical geology. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis SN, DeWiest RJM (1966) Hydrogeology. Wiley, New York, pp 4–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Egbueri JC, Unigwe CO (2020) Understanding the extent of heavy metal pollution in drinking water supplies from Umunya, Nigeria: an indexical and statistical assessment. Anal Lett 53(13):2122–2144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00032719.2020.1731521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egbueri JC, Ameh PD, Enyigwe MT, Unigwe CO (2020) Entropy-based analysis of the impact of environmentally sensitive elements on groundwater quality of the Ameka region of southeast Nigeria: medical geology implications. Anal Lett. https://doi.org/10.1080/00032719.2020.1797076

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egbueri JC, Mgbenu CN, Daniel Digwo C, Nnyigide CS (2021) A multi-criteria water quality evaluation for human consumption, irrigation and industrial purposes in Umunya area, southeastern Nigeria. Int J Environ Anal Chem. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2021.1907360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2003) Effluent guidelines and standards. General provisions. Toxic pollutants. Washington D.C. U.S EPA.40 CFR 401. 15

  • Essa (1999) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2007). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Division of Toxicology 1600, Atlanta, GA 30333

  • Eyankware MO, Nnajieze VS, Aleke CG (2018) Geochemical assessment of water quality for irrigation purpose in abandoned limestone quarry pit at Nkalagu area, Southern Benue Trough, Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7232-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eyankware MO, Nnabo PN, Ogwah C (2020) Impact of past mining activity on water resources around active and abandoned mines in Ebonyi State, South-Eastern Nigeria—a mini-review. Hydro Sci Mar Eng 2(2):29–35. https://doi.org/10.30564/hsme.v2i2.2412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeze RA, Cherry JA (1979) Groundwater, vol 7632. Prentice-Hall, Eagle Wood Cliffs, p 604

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorgij AD, Kisi O, Moghaddam AA, Taghipour A (2017) Groundwater quality ranking for drinking purposes, using the entropy method and the spatial autocorrelation index. Environ Earth Sci 76(7):269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6589-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hem JD (1991) Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water: USGS Professional Paper Book 2254. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur

    Google Scholar 

  • Ifediegwu IS, Onyabor CF, Nnamani CM (2019) Geochemical evaluation of carbonate aquifers in Ngbo and environs, Ebonyi State, Southeastern. Nigeria Modell Earth Syst Environ 646:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-019-00646-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ikhane PR, Folorunso AF, Nton ME, Oluwalaanu JA (2009) Evaluations of Turonian limestone formation exposed at NIGERCEM quarry, Nkalagu, southeastern Nigeria: a geochemical approach. Pac J Sci Technol 10(2):763–771

    Google Scholar 

  • Inyang PBE (1975) Climate in Ofomata Gek. Nigeria in maps, Eastern State. Ethiope Pub House, Benin City, pp 25–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Kowalska JB, Mazurek R, Gasiorek M, Zaleski T (2018) Pollution indices as useful tools for the comprehensive evaluation of the degree of soil contamination–a review. Environ Geochem Health 40(6):2395–2420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0106-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li P, Qian H, Wu J (2010) Groundwater quality assessment based on improved water quality index in Pengyang County, Ningxia, northwest China. E-J Chem 7:209–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu CW, Lin KH, Kuo YM (2003) Application of factor analysis in the assessment of groundwater quality in a blackfoot disease area in Taiwan. Sci Total Environ 313(1–3):77–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00683-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan W (2000) Water processing: residential, commercial, light-industrial, 3rd edn. Water Quality Association, Lisle, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukate S, Wagh V, Panaskar D, Jacobs JA, Sawant A (2019) Development of new integrated water quality index (IWQI) model to evaluate the drinking suitability of water. Ecol Ind 101:348–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.01.034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niu B, Wang H, Loaiciga HA, Hong S, Shao W (2017) Temporal variations of groundwater quality in the Western Jianghan Plain, China. Sci Total Environ 578(2017):542–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nordberg GF (2004) Cadmium and health in the 21st century-historical remarks and trends for the future. Biometals 17(5):485–489

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oko GO (2002) The Nigeria cement company Plc. Nkalagu Ebonyi State Re-Eval Limestone Reserv NIGERCEM Leases 19804:9806–9809

    Google Scholar 

  • Omonona OV, Ekwe AC, Azuoko GB et al (2021) Assessing the groundwater quality of a small-scale mining drainage basin using modified water quality indices. Arab J Geosci 14:1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-07912-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Onwe IM, Akudinobi BEB, Otosigbo GO, Ifeanyichukwu KA, Amoke IA (2019) Hydrochemical characteristics of water quality around Nkalagu area, Southern Benue Trough, Nigeria using multivariate statistical analysis. J Environ Earth Sci 9(11):64–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Onwe IM, Akudinobi BEB, Chizoba CJ, Ifeanyichukwu KA (2021) Hydrochemical characterization of groundwater quality in Nkalagu District, Southeastern Nigeria. Asian J Environ Ecol 14(2):34–50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petters SW (1991) Regional geology of Africa. In: Lecture notes in earth sciences series, vol 40. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Prasanth SS, Magesh NS, Jitheshlal KV, Chandrasekar N, Gangadhar K (2012) Evaluation of groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in the coastal stretch of Alappuzha District, Kerala, India. Appl Water Sci 2(3):165–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramesh K, Bhuvana JP (2012) Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater for domestic and irrigation purposes in Periyakulam taluk of Theni district, Tamil Nadu. Int Res J Environ Sci 1(1):19–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Reyment RA (1965) Aspects of the geology of Nigeria. Ibadan University Press, Ibadan, p 133

    Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer R, Simpson-Hébert M, Wood S (1998) PHAST step-by-step guide: a participatory approach for the control of diarrhea disease. World Health Organization, Geneva (WHO/EOS/98.3)

  • Shankar BS, Sreevidya R (2019) A novel approach for the formulation of modified water quality index and its application for groundwater quality appraisal and grading. Hum Ecol Risk Assess. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1688638

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh G, Rishi MS, Arora NK (2019) Integrated GIS-based modeling approach for irrigation water quality suitability zonation in parts of Satluj River Basin, Bist Doab Region, North India. SN Appl Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1405-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) (2015) Nigerian standard for drinking water quality. SON Publication, Nigeria, pp 15–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith AH, Lingas EO, Rahman M (2000) Contamination of drinking water by arsenic in Bangladesh: a public health emergency. Bull World Health Organ 78(9):1093–1103

    Google Scholar 

  • Umeji AC (2000) Evolution of the Abakaliki and the Anambra sedimentary basins, Southeastern Nigeria. A report submitted to the shell petroleum development company Nigeria, Limited

  • Unigwe CO, Egbueri JC (2021) Drinking water quality assessment based on statistical analysis and three water quality indices (MWQI, IWQI and EWQI): a case study. Environ Dev Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02076-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unigwe CO, Egbueri JC, Omeka ME (2022) Geospatial and statistical approaches to nitrate health risk and groundwater quality assessment of an alluvial aquifer in SE Nigeria for drinking and irrigation purposes. J Indian Chem Soc 99:100479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jics.2022.100479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wada Y, Gleeson T, Esnault L (2014) Wedge approach to water stress. Nat Geosci 7:615–617. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White R, Eman K (2020) Green criminology, water issues, human rights and private profit. In: Eman K, Meško G, Segato L, Migliorini M (eds) Water, governance, and crime issues. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44798-4_1

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO) (2017) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 3rd edn

  • Wu J, Liu Y, Tang L, Zhang FL, Chen F (2011) A study on structural features in early flower development of Jatropha curcas L and the classification of its inflorescences. Afr J Agric Res 6(2):275–284

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The authors have not disclosed any funding.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geology/Geophysics, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu Alike, Nigeria

    Ikechukwu M. Onwe, Chinanu O. Unigwe, Joseph I. Amah & Chizoba J. Chima

  2. Boone Pickens School of Geology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA, Oklahoma, USA

    Chinanu O. Unigwe

Authors
  1. Ikechukwu M. Onwe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Chinanu O. Unigwe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Joseph I. Amah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Chizoba J. Chima
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

IMO and COU prepared the main manuscript text. JIA and CJC prepared figures and tables. All authors reviewed the manuscript and accepted it.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ikechukwu M. Onwe.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declared that there is no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Onwe, I.M., Unigwe, C.O., Amah, J.I. et al. An integrated indexical approach in assessing physico-chemical water quality for drinking purposes in the Nkalagu area, southeastern Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci 82, 138 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-10821-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-10821-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation