Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The What, the Why, and the How: A Review of Racial Microaggressions Research in Psychology

  • Published:
Race and Social Problems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Since the publication of Sue et al. (Am Psychol 62:271–286, 2007a, b) seminal article, there has been an enormous scholarly interest in psychology on this construct of racial microaggressions—subtle everyday experiences of racism. In this paper, we provide a review of racial microaggressions research literature in psychology since 2007, following the publication of the first comprehensive taxonomy of racial microaggressions, which provided a conceptual framework and directions for research related to racial microaggressions. However, our review suggests that important conceptual and methodological issues remain to be addressed in the three domains: (1) what are racial microaggressions and who do they impact; (2) why are racial microaggressions important to examine; and (3) how are racial microaggressions currently studied and how might we improve the methodologies used to study racial microaggressions. We propose recommendations to further facilitate racial microaggressions research, improve the scientific rigor of racial microaggressions research, and contribute toward a more complete and sophisticated understanding of the concept and consequences of racial microaggressions—a construct that is undoubtedly salient and psychologically relevant among many members of racial minority groups.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Although microaggressions research, in general, has grown tremendously since Sue et al.’s (2007a, b) paper, a review of such a body of literature is beyond the scope of this article. A thorough review of microaggressions literature will go beyond race or ethnicity and will also include international/cultural, sexual orientation and gender, disability, class, and religious forms of microaggressions. This article focuses only on a specific type of microaggressions—racial microaggressions.

References

  • Allen, Q. (2010). Racial microaggressions: The schooling experiences of black middle-class males in Arizona’s secondary schools. Journal of African American Males in Education, 1(2), 125–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author. doi:10.1037/11381-000.

  • Balsam, K. F., Molina, Y., Beadnell, B., Simoni, J., & Walters, K. (2011). Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(2), 163–174. doi:10.1037/a0023244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, R. R. (2011). Racial microaggressions, racial identity, and working alliance in cross-racial counseling supervision relationships between black supervisors and white supervisees. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Beaumont, R. L. (2010). The influence of supervisor multicultural competence and racial microaggressions on supervisory working alliance, supervisee multicultural competence, and supervisee disclosure within supervision. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Blume, A. W., Lovato, L. V., Thyken, B. N., & Denny, N. (2012). The relationship of microaggressions with alcohol use and anxiety among ethnic minority students in a historically white institution. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 45–54. doi:10.1037/a0025457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burdsey, D. (2011). That joke isn’t funny anymore: Racial microaggressions, color-blind ideology and the mitigation of racism in English men’s first-class cricket. Sociology of Sport Journal, 28(3), 261–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, A. W. (1984). Racism and psychological disturbance among West Indians in Britain. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 30, 50–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappiccie, A., Chadha, J., Bi Lin, M., & Snyder, F. (2012). Using critical race theory to analyze how Disney constructs diversity: A construct for the baccalaureate human behavior in the social environment curriculum. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 32, 46–61. doi:10.1080/08841233.2012.640252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cartwright, B. Y., Washington, R. D., & McConnell, L. (2009). Examining racial microaggressions in rehabilitation counselor education. Rehabilitation Education, 23(2), 171–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D., Spanierman, L. B., Reed, T. D., Soble, J. R., & Cabana, S. (2011). Documenting Weblog expressions of racial microaggressions that target American Indians. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 39–50. doi:10.1037/a0021762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constantine, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions against African American clients in cross-racial counseling relationships. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constantine, M. G., Smith, L., Redington, R. M., & Owens, D. (2008). Racial microaggressions against black counseling and counseling psychology faculty: A central challenge in the multicultural counseling movement. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 348–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constantine, M. G., & Sue, D. W. (2007). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among black supervisees in cross-racial dyads. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 142–153. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, E. P. (2011). Stigma, racial microaggressions, and acculturation strategies as predictors of likelihood to seek counseling among black college students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608–630.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • David, E. J. R. (2008). A colonial mentality model of depression for Filipino Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(2), 118–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Oliveira Braga Lopez, R. (2011). Racial microaggressions and the black immigrants living in Portugal. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Doucette, D. M. (2011). Trainees’ beliefs of racial microaggressions in cross-cultural psychotherapy dyads. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Dovido, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000). Aversive racism and selective decisions: 1989–1999. Psychological Science, 11, 315–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002). Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 88–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, M. A., & Cohen, J. (2009, Jan 19). Far fewer consider racism big problem: Little change, however, at local level. Washington Post, p. A6.

  • Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61–89). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gee, G. C., & Ponce, N. (2010). Associations between racial discrimination and limited English proficiency with health-related quality of life among six Asian ethnic groups in California. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 888–895. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.178012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2007a). The association between self-reported racial discrimination and 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders among Asian Americans nationwide. Social Science and Medicine, 64, 1984–1996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2007b). A nationwide study of discrimination and chronic health conditions among Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1275–1282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez, M., Khurshid, A., Freitag, M. B., & Lachuk, A. (2011). Microaggressions in graduate students’ lives: How they are encountered and their consequences. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 27(8), 1189–1199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodstein, R. (2008). What’s missing from the dialogue on racial microaggressions in counseling and therapy. American Psychologist, 63(4), 276–277. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Granger, Jr., N. (2011). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among African American males in higher education: A heuristic inquiry. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Grier-Reed, T. L. (2010). The African American Student Network: Creating sanctuaries and counterspaces for coping with racial microaggressions in higher education settings. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 49(2), 181–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J., & Fields, B. (2012). Race and microaggression in nursing knowledge and development. Advances in Nursing Science, 35, 25–38. doi:10.1097/ANS.0b013e3182433b70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, J. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, J. P., Halls, S., & Taliaferro, J. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 243–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R. S, Jr. (2009). Racial microaggression? How do you know?—revisited. American Psychologist, 64, 220. doi:10.1037/a0014749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R. S. Jr. (2008). Racial microaggression? How do you know? American Psychologist, 63(4), 275–276. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “Get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 707–730.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Dovidio, J. F., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Phills, C. E. (2009a). An implicit measure of anti-gay attitudes: Prospective associations with emotion regulation strategies and psychological distress. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1316–1320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Dovidio, J. (2009b). How does stigma “get under the skin”: The mediating role of emotion regulation. Psychological Science, 20(10), 1283–1289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henfield, M. S. (2011). Black male adolescents navigating microaggressions in a traditionally White school: A qualitative study. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 39(2), 141–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 54–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hernández, P., Carranza, M., & Almeida, R. (2010). Mental health professionals’ adaptive responses to racial microaggressions: An exploratory study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41, 202–209. doi:10.1037/a0018445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, J. S., Kim, S., & Williams, C. D. (2010). The context of racial microaggressions against indigenous peoples: Same old racism or something new? In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics and impact (pp. 105–122). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huber, L. (2011). Discourses of racist nativism in California public education: English dominance as racist nativist microaggressions. Educational Studies, 47(4), 379–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, R. L. (2011). A examination of workplace racial microaggressions and their effect on employee performance. (Masters thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Huynh, V. (2012). Ethnic microaggressions and the depressive and somatic symptoms of Latino and Asian American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(7), 831–846.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, M. P., & Nadal, K. L. (2010). Multiracial microaggressions: Exposing monoracism in everyday life and clinical practice. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 123–144). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

  • Lau, M. Y., & Williams, C. D. (2010). Microaggressions research: Methodological review and recommendations. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics and impact (pp. 313–336). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, A. I. (2011). Development and initial validation of the Asian American Racial Microaggressions Scale (AARMS): Exploring Asian American experience with racial microaggressions. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Marshall, M. N. (1996). Sampling for qualitative research. Family Practice, 13, 522–526. doi:10.1093/fampra/13.6.522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mays, V. M., Cochran, S. D., & Barnes, N. W. (2007). Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African-Americans. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 201–225. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, J. (2009). Racial and gender microaggressions on a predominately White campus: Experiences of black, Latina/o and white undergraduates. Race, Gender and Class, 16, 133–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovido & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 91–126). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mercer, S. H., Zeigler-Hill, V., Wallace, M., & Hayes, D. M. (2011). Development and initial Validation of the Inventory of microaggressions against black individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 457–469. doi:10.1037/a0024937.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress and mental health in lesbian, gay and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michael-Makri, S. (2010). Racial and ethnic minority graduate experiences with racial microaggressions in CACREP-Accredited programs. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Mitchell, T. L. (2011). African American students’ experiences attending a predominately White high school: A comparison of the perspectives of homegrown and transfer students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Monroe, S. M. (2008). Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morton, E. (2011). The incidence of racial microaggressions in the cross-racial counseling dyad. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Murphy-Shigematsu, S. (2010). Microaggressions by supervisors of color. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 4, 16–18. doi:10.1037/a0017472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L. (2008a). Ethnic group membership, phenotype, and perceptions of racial discrimination for Filipino and Chinese Americans: Implications for mental health. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest LLC.

  • Nadal, K. L. (2008b). Preventing racial, ethnic, gender, sexual minority, disability, and religious microaggressions: Recommendations for positive mental health. Prevention in Counseling Psychology: Theory, Research, Practice, and Training, 2, 22–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L. Y. (2011a). Responding to racial, gender, and sexual orientation microaggressions in the workplace. In M. A. Paludi, C. R. Paludi, & R. DeSouza (Eds.), Praeger handbook on understanding and preventing workplace discrimination (Vol. 1 & 2, pp. 23–32). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ABC-CLIO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L. (2011b). The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 470–480. doi:10.1037/a0025193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L. Y., Vargas, K. E., Issa, V. M., Lyons, O. B., & Tobio, M. (2011a). Processes and struggles with racial microaggressions from the white American perspective: Recommendations for workplace settings. In M. A. Paludi, C. R. Paludi, & R. DeSouza (Eds.), Praeger handbook on understanding and preventing workplace discrimination (Vol. 1 & 2, pp. 155–180). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ABC-CLIO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadal, K. L., Wong, Y., Griffin, K., Striken, J., Vargas, V., Widemann, M., et al. (2011b). Microaggressions and the multiracial experience. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1, 36–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nnawulezi, N. (2011). A exploration of racial microaggressions within domestic violence shelters. (Masters thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Okazaki, S. (2002). Beyond questionnaires: Conceptual and methodological innovations in Asian American Psychology. In G. C. Nagayama Hall & S. Okazaki (Eds.), Asian American psychology: The science of lives in context (pp. 13–40). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Okazaki, S. (2009). Impact of racism on ethnic minority mental health. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 103–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Outlaw, F. H. (1993). Stress and coping: The influence of racism on the cognitive appraisal processing of African Americans. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 14, 399–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, J., Imel, Z., Tao, K. W., Wampold, B., Smith, A., & Rodolfa, E. (2011). Cultural ruptures in short-term therapy: Working alliance as a mediator between perceptions of microaggressions and therapy outcomes. Counseling & Psychotherapy Research, 11, 204–212. doi:10.1080/14733145.2010.491551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, C. M. (1995). Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture, and disaster. In C. Willie, P. Rieker, B. Kramer, & B. Brown (Eds.), Mental health, racism and sexism (pp. 277–293). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburg Press.

  • Poon, O. Y. A. (2010). “More complicated than an numbers game”: A critical race theory examination of Asian Americans and racial climate. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Rivera, D. P., Forquer, E. E., & Rangel, R. (2010). Microaggressions and the life experience of Latina/o Americans. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestations, dynamics, and impact (pp. 59–83). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, D. M. (2011). The perceived relationship between wellness and microaggressions in African American and Latina American female doctoral students in counselor education programs. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Ruiz-Mesa, K. (2007). Diversity retention through micro practices. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Sauceda, E. (2010). Ethnic identity, perceptions of racial microaggressions, and perceptions of university environment as predictors of coping among Latina/o graduate students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest LLC.

  • Schacht, T. E. (2008). A broader view of microaggression in psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 273. doi:10.1037/0003-066X63.4.273.

  • Schoulte, J., Schultz, J., & Altmaier, E. (2011). Forgiveness in response to cultural microaggressions. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 24, 291–300. doi:10.1080/09515070.2011.634266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sears, D. O. (1988). Symbolic racism. In P. Katz & D. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy (pp. 53–84). New York: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sechrist, G. B., Swim, J. K., & Mark, M. M. (2003). Mood as information in making attributions to discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 524–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, P. (2008). Coping with perceived racial and ethnic discrimination in women of color in graduate education. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest LLC.

  • Smith, W. A., Hung, M., & Franklin, J. D. (2011). Racial battle fatigue and the “mis”education of black men: Racial microaggressions, societal problems, and environmental stress. Journal of Negro Education, 80(1), 63–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69, 60–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W. (2009). Racial microaggressions and worldviews. American Psychologist, 64, 220–221. doi:10.1037/a0015310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W. (2010a). Microaggressions in everyday life: race, gender, and sexual orientation. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W. (2010b). Microaggressions and marginality: manifestation, dynamics, and impact. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Bucceri, J., Lin, A. I., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2009a). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience. Asian American Journal of Psychology, S(1). doi:10.1037/1948-1985.S.1.88.

  • Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., & Holder, A. B. (2008a). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 39, 329–336. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.39.3.329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Nadal, K., & Torino, G. L. (2008b). Racial microaggressions and the power to define reality. American Psychologist, 277–279. doi:10.1037/0-03-066X.63.4.277.

  • Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C., Torino, G., Bucceri, J., Holder, A., Nadal, K., et al. (2007a). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. B., Nadal, K. L., et al. (2007b). Racial microaggression in everyday life. American Psychologist, 62, 271–286. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., & Constantine, M. G. (2007). Racial microaggressions as instigators of difficult dialogues on race: Implications for student affairs educators and students. College Student Affairs Journal, 26(2), 136–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., & Rivera, D. P. (2009b). Racial microaggressions in the workplace: Manifestations and impact. In J. L. Chin (Ed.), Diversity in mind and in action (Vol. 2, pp. 157–172). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., & Rivera, D. P. (2009c). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 183–190. doi:10.1037/a0014191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Nadal, K. L., Capodilupo, C. M., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., & Rivera, D. P. (2008c). Racial microaggressions against black Americans: Implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 330–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Rivera, D. P., Capodilupo, C. M., Lin, A. I., & Torino, G. C. (2010). Racial dialogues and white trainee fears: Implications for education and training. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 206–214. doi:10.1037/a0016112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Rivera, D. P., Watkins, N. L., Kim, R. H., Kim, S., & Williams, C. D. (2011). Challenges faculty of color face in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 331–340. doi:10.1037/a0024190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2007). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., Rivera, D. P., & Lin, A. I. (2009d). How white faculty perceive and react to difficult dialogues on race: Implications for education and training. The Counseling Psychologist, 37, 1090–1115. doi:10.1177/0011000009340443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tesler, M., & Sears, D. O. (2010). Obama’s race: The 2008 election and the dream of a post-racial America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, K. R. (2008). Macrononsense in multiculturalism. American Psychologist, 63(4), 274–275. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torres, L., Driscoll, M. W., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Racial microaggressions and psychological functioning among highly-achieving African Americans: A mixed-methods approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29, 1074–1099. doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.10.1074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torres-Harding, S. R., Andrade, A. R., & Romero Diaz, C. E. (2012). The Racial Microaggressions Scale (RMAS): A new scale to measure experiences of racial microaggressions in people of color. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 153–164. doi:10.1037/a0027658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Leu, J., & Shoda, Y. (2011). When the seemingly innocuous “stings”: Racial microaggressions and their emotional consequences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1666–1678. doi:10.1177/0146167211416130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, N. L., LaBarrie, T. L., & Appio, L. M. (2010). Black undergraduates experience with perceived racial microaggressions in predominately white colleges and universities. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestations, dynamics, and impact (pp. 25–58). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasso, T. J., Smith, W. A., Ceja, M., & Solorzano, D. G. (2009). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard Education Review, 79(4), 659–690.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of California, Oakland, CA, USA

    Gloria Wong & Anne Saw

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, USA

    Annie O. Derthick & E. J. R. David

  3. Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York City, NY, USA

    Sumie Okazaki

Authors
  1. Gloria Wong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Annie O. Derthick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. E. J. R. David
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Anne Saw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Sumie Okazaki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gloria Wong.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wong, G., Derthick, A.O., David, E.J.R. et al. The What, the Why, and the How: A Review of Racial Microaggressions Research in Psychology. Race Soc Probl 6, 181–200 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-013-9107-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-013-9107-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation