Abstract
Background
There are racial health disparities in many conditions for which oxidative stress is hypothesized to be a precursor. These include cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and premature aging. Small clinical studies suggest that psychological stress may increase oxidative stress. However, confirmation of this association in epidemiological studies has been limited by homogenous populations and unmeasured potential confounders.
Purpose
We tested the cross-sectional association between self-reported racial discrimination and red blood cell (RBC) oxidative stress in a biracial, socioeconomically heterogeneous population with well-measured confounders.
Methods
We performed a cross-sectional analysis of a consecutive series of 629 participants enrolled in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study. Conducted by the National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, HANDLS is a prospective epidemiological study of a socioeconomically diverse cohort of 3,721 Whites and African Americans aged 30–64 years. Racial discrimination was based on self-report. RBC oxidative stress was measured by fluorescent heme degradation products. Potential confounders were age, smoking status, obesity, and C-reactive protein.
Results
Participants had a mean age of 49 years (SD = 9.27). In multivariable linear regression models, racial discrimination was significantly associated with RBC oxidative stress (Beta = 0.55, P < 0.05) after adjustment for age, smoking, C-reactive protein level, and obesity. When stratified by race, discrimination was not associated with RBC oxidative stress in Whites but was associated significantly for African Americans (Beta = 0.36, P < 0.05).
Conclusions
These findings suggest that there may be identifiable cellular pathways by which racial discrimination amplifies cardiovascular and other age-related disease risks.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- RBC:
-
Red blood cells
- CRP:
-
C-reactive protein
References
Kung HC, Hoyert DL, Xu J, Murphy SL. Deaths: final data for 2005. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2008;56:4–26.
Williams DR, Mohammed SA. Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. J Behav Med. 2009;32:20–47.
Pascoe EA, Smart RL. Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull. 2009;135:531–54.
Meigs JB, Larson MG, Fox CS, Keaney Jr JF, Vasan RS, Benjamin EJ. Association of oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and diabetes risk phenotypes: the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:2529–35.
de Champlain J, Wu R, Girouard H, Karas M, EL Midaoui A, Laplante MA, et al. Oxidative stress in hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens. 2004;26:593–601.
Droge W, Schipper HM. Oxidative stress and aberrant signaling in aging and cognitive decline. Aging Cell. 2007;6:361–70.
Nagababu E, Mohanty JG, Bhamidipaty S, Ostera GR, Rifkind JM. Role of the membrane in the formation of heme degradation products in red blood cells. Life Sci. 2010;86:133–8.
Nagababu E, Rifkind JM. Heme degradation by reactive oxygen species. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2004;6:967–78.
McEwen BS. Stress, adaptation, and disease. Allostasis and allostatic load. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998;840:33–44.
Kiefmann R, Rifkind JM, Nagababu E, Bhattacharya J. Red blood cells induce hypoxic lung inflammation. Blood. 2008;111:5205–14.
Vlachopoulos C, Xaplanteris P, Alexopoulos N, Aznaouridis K, Vasiliadou C, Baou K, et al. Divergent effects of laughter and mental stress on arterial stiffness and central hemodynamics. Psychosom Med. 2009;71:446–53.
Kupper N, Gidron Y, Winter J, Denollet J. Association between type D personality, depression, and oxidative stress in patients with chronic heart failure. Psychosom Med. 2009;71:973–80.
Casado A, De Lucas N, Lopez-Fernandez E, Sanchez A, Jimenez JA. Lipid peroxidation, occupational stress and aging in workers of a prehospital emergency service. Eur J Emerg Med. 2006;13:165–71.
Eskiocak S, Gozen AS, Yapar SB, Tavas F, Kilic AS, Eskiocak M. Glutathione and free sulphydryl content of seminal plasma in healthy medical students during and after exam stress. Hum Reprod. 2005;20:2595–600.
Epel ES, Blackburn EH, Lin J, Dhabhar FS, Adler NE, Morrow JD, et al. Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:17312–5.
Sivonova M, Zitnanova I, Hlincikova L, Skodacek I, Trebaticka J, Durackova Z. Oxidative stress in university students during examinations. Stress. 2004;7:183–8.
Yadav RK, Ray RB, Vempati R, Bijlani RL. Effect of a comprehensive yoga-based lifestyle modification program on lipid peroxidation. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2005;49:358–62.
Sharma H, Sen S, Singh A, Bhardwaj NK, Kochupillai V, Singh N. Sudarshan Kriya practitioners exhibit better antioxidant status and lower blood lactate levels. Biol Psychol. 2003;63:281–91.
Evans MK, Lepkowski JM, Powe NR, LaVeist T, Kuczmarski MF, Zonderman AB. Healthy aging in neighborhoods of diversity across the life span (HANDLS): overcoming barriers to implementing a longitudinal, epidemiologic, urban study of health, race, and socioeconomic status. Ethn Dis. 2010;20:265–75.
LaVeist TA, Rolley NC, Diala C. Prevalence and patterns of discrimination among U.S. health care consumers. Int J Health Serv. 2003;33:331–44.
Rifkind JM, Nagababu E, Ramasamy S, Ravi LB. Hemoglobin redox reactions and oxidative stress. Redox Rep. 2003;8:234–7.
Rifkind JM, Ramasamy S, Manoharan PT, Nagababu E, Mohanty JG. Redox reactions of hemoglobin. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2004;6:657–66.
Nagababu E, Fabry ME, Nagel RL, Rifkind JM. Heme degradation and oxidative stress in murine models for hemoglobinopathies: thalassemia, sickle cell disease and hemoglobin C disease. Blood Cells Mol Dis. 2008;41:60–6.
Block G, Dietrich M, Norkus EP, Morrow JD, Hudes M, Caan B, et al. Factors associated with oxidative stress in human populations. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;156:274–85.
Harman D. Aging: a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry. J Gerontol. 1956;11:298–300.
Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R, Colombo R, Giustarini D, Milzani A. Biomarkers of oxidative damage in human disease. Clin Chem. 2006;52:601–23.
Steffen PR, McNeilly M, Anderson N, Sherwood A. Effects of perceived racism and anger inhibition on ambulatory blood pressure in African Americans. Psychosom Med. 2003;65:746–50.
Lewis TT, Aiello AE, Leurgans S, Kelly J, Barnes LL. Self-reported experiences of everyday discrimination are associated with elevated C-reactive protein levels in older African-American adults. Brain Behav Immun. 2010;24:438–43.
Friedman EM, Williams DR, Singer BH, Ryff CD. Chronic discrimination predicts higher circulating levels of E-selectin in a national sample: the MIDUS study. Brain Behav Immun. 2009;23:684–92.
Lewis TT, Everson-Rose SA, Powell LH, Matthews KA, Brown C, Karavolos K, et al. Chronic exposure to everyday discrimination and coronary artery calcification in African-American women: the SWAN Heart Study. Psychosom Med. 2006;68:362–8.
Richman LS, Bennett GG, Pek J, Siegler I, Williams Jr RB. Discrimination, dispositions, and cardiovascular responses to stress. Heal Psychol. 2007;26:675–83.
Richman LS, Jonassaint C. The effects of race-related stress on cortisol reactivity in the laboratory: implications of the Duke lacrosse scandal. Ann Behav Med. 2008;35:105–10.
Liu J, Mori A. Stress, aging, and brain oxidative damage. Neurochem Res. 1999;24:1479–97.
Mercanoglu G, Safran N, Uzun H, Eroglu L. Chronic emotional stress exposure increases infarct size in rats: the role of oxidative and nitrosative damage in response to sympathetic hyperactivity. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2008;30:745–52.
Thomas KS, Bardwell WA, Ancoli-Israel S, Dimsdale JE. The toll of ethnic discrimination on sleep architecture and fatigue. Heal Psychol. 2006;25:635–42.
Jackson JS, Knight KM. Race and self-regulatory health behaviors: the role of the stress response and the HPA axis in physical and mental health disparities. In: Schaie KW, Carstensen LL, editors. Social structures, aging, and self-regulation in the elderly. New York: Springer; 2006. p. 189–208.
Borrell LN, Diez RAV, Jacobs Jr DR. Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, smoking and alcohol consumption in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Prev Med. 2010;51:307–12.
Dailey AB, Kasl SV, Holford TR, Lewis TT, Jones BA. Neighborhood- and individual-level socioeconomic variation in perceptions of racial discrimination. Ethn Heal. 2010;15:145–63.
Krieger N, Sidney S. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: the CARDIA study of young black and white adults. Am J Public Health. 1996;86:1370–8.
The EuroQol group. EuroQol—a new facility for the measurement of health-related quality of life. Health Policy. 1990;16:199–208.
Martin LG, Schoeni RF, Freedman VA, Andreski P. Feeling better? Trends in general health status. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2007;62:S11–21.
Barnes LL, de Leon CF, Lewis TT, Bienias JL, Wilson RS, Evans DA. Perceived discrimination and mortality in a population-based study of older adults. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:1241–7.
Acknowledgments
The National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health supported this research. This publication was also made possible by 1KL2RR025006-01 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as the John A. Hartford Foundation’s Building Academic Geriatric Nursing Capacity Award Program.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Szanton, S.L., Rifkind, J.M., Mohanty, J.G. et al. Racial Discrimination Is Associated with a Measure of Red Blood Cell Oxidative Stress: A Potential Pathway for Racial Health Disparities. Int.J. Behav. Med. 19, 489–495 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-011-9188-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-011-9188-z