Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Silurian Akkas Formation, Iraqi western desert: implications for palaeoweathering, provenance and tectonic setting

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Arabian Journal of Geosciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The mineralogical and geochemical composition of the Silurian Akkas Formation consisting of interbedded shales, sandstones, siltstones and rare marls from the western desert of Iraq was investigated based on geochemical and petrographic data to constrain their weathering condition, palaeoclimate, provenance and tectonic setting. Based on petrographic and SEM analysis, sandstones are dominated by quartz with rare rock fragments, mica and feldspar, whereas clay minerals assemblage is dominated by illite and kaolinite with a lesser amount of chlorite in shales and chlorite with a minor amount of illite, kaolinite and mixed layer illite/smectite in sandstones. The chemical index of alteration (high CIA), the index of compositional variability (ICV < 1), plagioclase index of alteration (high PIA) values and A–CN–K plot suggest mainly intensely chemically weathered source area. The elemental ratios critical for palaeoclimate (Sr/Cu and Ga/Rb) and Ga/Rb vs Sr/Cu plot in addition to clay mineral evidence indicate fluctuating climate between humid and arid conditions, which was affected by the extensive Late Ordovician–Early Silurian glaciation (Hirnantian glaciation event) during the deposition of the Akkas sediments. The geochemical data from major, trace and REE elements, as well as bivariate discrimination provenance diagrams, suggest mainly felsic–intermediate igneous source rocks. The mineralogical composition of sandstones (high quartz content, rare feldspar and rock fragments) and the high geochemical maturity of shales and sandstones indicate that they were derived from stable cratonic source and recycled orogeny with the possible contribution from quartz-rich crystalline provenance. These sources were likely the plutonic–metamorphic complexes of the Arabian Shield located to the southwest of the Akkas basin. The detrital mode tectonic provenance diagram, discriminant function-based major element diagrams and REE concentrations suggest continental margin/intracratonic depositional setting mixed with an older collisional source, which is consistent with the general geology of the study area.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbas MA, Kaminski MA, Dogan AU (2017) Source, tectonic setting, and facies distribution of the Silurian Sharawra Formation, the Old Qusaiba village, central Saudi Arabia. J Afr Earth Sci 130:48–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdula RA, Akram R, Jabbar WJ, Albeyati F (2020) Efficiency of oil and gas generation of Palaeozoic formations outcrops in Nazdur area, Kurdistan region, Northern Iraq: insights from palynological study. Iraqi Geol J 53(1A):16–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akkoca DB, Eriş KK, Çağatay MN, Tekín DB (2019) The mineralogical and geochemical composition of Holocene sediments from Lake Hazar, Elazığ, Eastern Turkey: implications for weathering, paleoclimate, redox conditions, provenance, and tectonic setting. Turkish J Earth Sci 28:760–785. https://doi.org/10.3906/yer-1812-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akkoca DB, Karatas MA (2019) The geochemical composition of the Palu Formation from the Palu-Uluova basin, Elaziğ, Eastern Anatolia (Turkey): implication of source area, weathering, and tectonic setting. J Afr Earth Sci 151:472–489

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Ameri TK (2010) Palynostratigraphy and the assessment of gas and oil generation and accumulations in the Lower Paleozoic, Western Iraq. Arabian J Geosci 3(2):155–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Haba Y, Al-Samarrai A, Al-Jubori F, Geogis NN, Ahmed IM (1994) Exploration for the Paleozoic prospects in Western Iraq, Part 1, Exploration of the Paleozoic system in Western Iraq. In: Proceedings of the Second Seminar on Hydrocarbon Potential of Deep Formations in the Arab Countries (OAPEC), Cairo

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Hadidy AH (2007) Paleozoic stratigraphic lexicon and hydrocarbon habitat of Iraq. GeoArabia 12:63–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Harbi OA, Khan MM (2005) Mineralogy and geochemistry of Unayzah Formation, Central Saudi Arabia: implications for provenance interpretation. J King Saud Univ 18:35–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Harbi OA, Khan MM (2008) Provenance, diagenesis, tectonic setting and geochemistry of Tawil Sandstone (Lower Devonian) in Central Saudi Arabia. J Asian Earth Sci 33:278–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Harbi OA, Khan MM (2011) Source and origin of glacial paleovalley-fill sediments (Upper Ordovician) of Sarah Formation in central Saudi Arabia. Arabian J Geosci 4:825–835

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Jubouri FHK (1997) Palynological study of Silurian and Ordovician sediments in Khleisia-1, Western Desert, Iraq. Iraqi Oil Exploration Company unpublished report, Baghdad, p 25

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Juboury AI, Al-Hadidy AH (2009) Petrology and depositional evolution of the Palaeozoic rocks of Iraq. Marine Petroleum Geol 26:208–231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Juboury AI, Howard JP, Nichols GS, Vincent J, Manning C, Vautravers BP (2019) Sedimentology, geochemistry and reservoir potential of sandstones in the Silurian Akkas Formation, Western Iraq. J Petroleum Geol 42(3):261–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Juboury AI, Howard JP, Thusu NGS, Stephen J, Vincent J, Matthew ND, Vautravers BP (2020c) Mineralogy, geochemistry and source potential of shale in the Cambro-Ordovician Khabour Formation, Iraq. J Afr Earth Sci 170:103901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2020.103901

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Juboury AI, Howard JP, Vincent SJ, Nichols G (2020b) Petrography, diagenesis and geochemistry of the Cambro-Ordovician Khabour sandstones, Western Iraq: implications for reservoir quality and the impact of the Hirnantian glaciation. Marine Petroleum Geol:123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104733

  • Al-Juboury AI, Morton A, Shingaly WS, Howard J, Thusu B, Vincent S, Fanning M (2020a) Stratigraphy and age revision of the Pirispiki Formation, Kurdistan Region, Northern Iraq. Arabian J Geosci 13:1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Juboury AI, Qader FM, Howard J, Vincent SJ, Al-HadidyA TB, Kaye MND, Vautravers B (2021) Organic and inorganic geochemical and mineralogical assessments of the Silurian Akkas Formation, Western Iraq. J Petroleum Geol 44(1):69–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Juboury AI, Thani MAM (2018) Silurian gas-rich “Hot Shale” from Akkas gas field, Western Iraq: geological importance and updated hydrocarbon potential and reservoir development estimations of the field. In: Al-Juboury AI (ed) Shale Gas- New Aspects and Technologies. InTech Open, London, pp 41–66

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sammarai AA, Al-Jubouri F, Khushaba A, Al-Rubaii M, Sahira A, Beruti A, Beko T (1994) Geological studies of Akkas Field. Iraq Oil Exploration Company unpublished report, Baghdad

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sharhan AS, Kendall CGSC (1986) Precambrian to Jurassic rocks of Arabian Gulf and adjacent areas: their facies, depositional setting, and hydrocarbon habitat. Am Assoc Petroleum Geol Bull 70:977–1002

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sharhan AS, Nairn AEM (1997) Sedimentary basins and petroleum geology of the Middle East. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Amireh BS (1991) Mineral composition of the Cambrian–Cretaceous Nubian Series of Jordan: provenance, tectonic setting and climatological implication. Sedimentary Geol 71:99–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aqrawi AA, Goff JC, Horbury AD, Sadooni FN (2010) The petroleum geology of Iraq. Scientific Press, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Aqrawi AAM (1998) Paleozoic stratigraphy and petroleum systems of the western and southwestern deserts of Iraq. GeoArabia 3:229–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong HA, Turner BR, Makhlouf IM, Weedon GP, Williams M, Alsmadi A, Abu Salah A (2005) Origin, sequence stratigraphy and depositional environment of an upper Ordovician (Hirnantian) deglacial black shale, Jordan. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 220:273–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong-Altrin JS, Lee YI, Kasper JJ, Carranza-Edwards A, Garcia DN, Balaram V, Cruz-Ortiz NL (2012) Geochemistry of beach sands along the western Gulf, Mexico, Mexico: implication for provenance. Chem Erde Geochem 72(4):345–362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong-Altrin JS, Lee YI, Verma SP, Ramasamy S (2004) Geochemistry of sandstones from the upper Miocene Kudankulam Formation, southern India: implications for provenance, weathering, and tectonic setting. J Sedimentary Res 74(2):285–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong-Altrin JS, Nagarajan R, Balaram V, Natalhy-Pineda O (2015) Petrography and geochemistry of sands from the Chachalacas and Veracruz beach areas, western Gulf of Mexico, Mexico: constraints on provenance and tectonic setting. J South Am Earth Sci 64:199–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong-Altrin JS, Nagarajan R, Lee YI, Kasper-Zubillaga JJ, Cordoba-Saldaña LP (2014) Geochemistry of sands along the San Nicolãs and San Carlos beaches, Gulf of California, Mexico: implications for provenance and tectonic setting. Turkish J Earth Sci 23(5):533–558

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong-Altrin JS, Ramos-Vázquez MA, Hermenegildo-Ruiz NY, Madhavaraju J (2020) Microtexture and U–Pb geochronology of detrital zircon grains in the Chachalacas beach, Veracruz State, Gulf of Mexico. Geological J. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3984

  • Armstrong-Altrin JS, Verma SP (2005a) Critical evaluation of six tectonic setting discrimination diagrams using geochemical data of Neogene sediments from known tectonic setting. Sedimentary Geol 177:115–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong-Altrin JS, Verma SP (2005b) Critical Evaluation of six tectonic setting discrimination diagrams using geochemical data of Neogene sediments from known tectonic settings. Sedimentary Geol 177:115–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asiedu DK, Suzukis SI, Nogami K, Shibata T (2000) Geochemistry of lower Cretaceous sediments, inner zone of Southwest Japan: constraints on provenance and tectonic environment. Geochemical J 34:155–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Awan RS, Liu C, Gong H, Dun C, Tong C, Chamssidini LG (2020) Paleo-sedimentary environment in relation to the enrichment of organic matter of Early Cambrian black rocks of Niutitang Formation from Xiangxi area China. Marine Petroleum Geol 112:104057

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baban DHM (1996) Palynostratigraphy and organic maturation of the lower part of Paleozoic in the western desert of Iraq. PhD thesis, Baghdad University, Iraq.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bassis A (2017) Petrography, geochemistry and provenance of Saudi Arabian Palaeozoic sandstones. Technische Universität, Ph.D. Thesis, Darmstadt

    Google Scholar 

  • Basu A, Young S, Suttner LJ, James WC, Mack CH (1975) Re-evaluation of the use of undulatory extinction and polycrystallinity in detrital quartz for provenance interpretation. J Sediment Petrol 45:873–882

    Google Scholar 

  • Basu H, Dandele PS, Kumar KR, Achar KK, Umamaheswar K (2017) Geochemistry of black shales from the Mesoproterozoic Srisailam Formation, Cuddapah basin, India: implications for provenance, palaeoweathering, tectonics, and timing of Columbia breakup. Chemie Der Erde–Geochemistry 77:596–613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berberian M, King GC (1981) Towards a paleogeography and tectonic evolution of Iran. Can J Earth Sci 18:210–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berra F, Angiolini L (2014) The Evolution of the Tethys region throughout the Phanerozoic: a brief tectonic reconstruction. In: Marlow L, Kendall CCG, Yose LA (eds) Petroleum Systems of the Tethyan Region, AAPG, Memoir, vol 106, pp 1–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Bessa AZE, Nguetchoua G, Janpou AK, El-Amier YA, Nguetnga ONNM, Kayou UR, Bisse SB, Mapuna ECN, Armstrong-Altrin JS (2020) Heavy metal contamination and its ecological risks in the beach sediments along the Atlantic Ocean (Limbe coastal fringes, Cameron). Earth Syst Environ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00167-5

  • Beydoun ZR (1988) The Middle East: regional geology and petroleum resources. Scientific Press, UK, p 291

    Google Scholar 

  • Beydoun ZR (1993) Evolution of the northeastern Arabian Plate margin and shelf: hydrocarbon habitat and conceptual future potential. Revue de I’Institut Franc-ais du Pe’trole 48:311–345

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia MR (1983) Plate tectonics and geochemical composition of sandstones. J Geol 91:611–627

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia MR (1985) Rare earth element geochemistry of Australian Paleozoic graywackes and mudrocks: provenance and tectonic control. Sedimentary Geol 45:97–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia MR, Crook KA (1986) Trace element characteristics of graywackes and tectonic setting discrimination of sedimentary basins. Contrib Mineralogy Petrology 92:181–193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buday T, Jassim SZ (1987) The Regional Geology of Iraq. Tectonism, magmatism and metamorphism. Geological Soc Iraq.

  • Burnett DJ, Quirk DJ (2001) Turbidite provenance in the Lower Palaeozoic Manx Group, Isle of Man: implications for the tectonic setting of Eastern Avalonia. J Geological Soc 158(6):913–924

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao J, Wu M, Chen Y, Hu K, Bian L, Wang L, Zhang Y (2012) Trace and rare earth element geochemistry of Jurassic mudstones in the northern Qaidam Basin, Northwest China. Chem Erde 72:245–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chamley H (1989) Clay sedimentology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cox R, Lowe DR, Cullers RL (1995) The influence of sediment recycling and basement composition on the evolution of mudrock chemistry in the southwestern United States. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59(14):2919–2940

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers RL (1994) The controls on major and trace element variation of shales, siltstones, and sandstones of Pennsylvanian-Permian age from uplifted continental blocks in Colorado to platform sediment in Kansas, USA. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58:4955–4972

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers RL (1995) The controls on the major and trace element evolution of shales, siltstones and sandstones of Ordovician to tertiary age in the Wet Mountain region, Colorado, U.S.A. Chem Geology 123(1–4):107–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers RL (2000) The geochemistry of shales, siltstones and sandstones of Pennsylvanian-Permian age, Colorado, U.S.A.: implications for provenance and metamorphic studies. Lithos 51:181–203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers RL, Podkovyrov VN (2000) Geochemistry of the Mesoproterozoic Lakhanda shales in southeastern Yakutia, Russia: implications for mineralogical and provenance control, and recycling. Precambrian Res 104:77–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cusack M, Arrieta JM, Duarte CM (2020) Source apportionment and elemental composition of atmospheric total suspended particulates (TSP) over the Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia. Earth Systems and Environment. Springer Int Publishing 4(4):777–788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00189-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dabard MP (1990) Lower Brioverian formations (upper Proterozoic) of the Armorican massif (France): geodynamic evolution of source areas revealed by sandstone petrography and geochemistry. Sedimentary Geol 69:45–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dai S, Graham IT, Ward CR (2016) A review of anomalous rare earth elements and yttrium in coal. Int J Caol Geol 159:82–95

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dai S, Liu J, Ward CR, Hower JC, French D, Jia S, Hood MM, Garrison TM (2015) Mineralogical and geochemical compositions of late Permian coals and host rocks from the Guxu coalfield, Sichuan Province, China, with emphasis on enrichment of rare metals. Int J Caol Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.04.005

  • Detian Y, Daizhaob C, Zhuozhuoc W, Jinga L, Xiangronga Y, Baoa Z (2019) Climatic and oceanic controlled deposition of Late Ordovician-Early Silurian black shales on the North Yangtze platform, South China. Marine Petroleum Geol 110:112–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson WR, Beard LS, Brakenridge GR, Erjavec JL, Ferguson RC, Inman KF, Knepp RA, Lindberg FA, Ryberg PT (1983) Provenance of North American Phanerozoic sandstones in relation to tectonic setting. Geological Soc Am Bul 94:222–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson WR, Suczek CA (1979) Plate tectonics and sandstone compositions. Bull Am Assoc Petrol Geol 63:21–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Ding J, Zhang J, Tang X, Huo Z, Han S, Lang Y, Liu T (2018) Elemental geochemical evidence for depositional conditions and organic matter enrichment of black rock series strata in an inter-platform basin: the Lower Carboniferous Datang Formation, southern Guizhou, Southwest China. Minerals 8(11):509. https://doi.org/10.3390/min8110509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobrzinski N, Bahlburg H, Strauss H, Zhang QR (2004) Geochemical climate proxies applied to the Neoproterozoic glacial succession on the Yangtze Platform, South China. In: Jenkins G, McMenamin MAS, McKay CP, Sohl L (eds.) Extreme Proterozoic Geology, Geochemistry and Climate pp. 13-32

    Google Scholar 

  • Fedo CM, Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1995) Unravelling the effects of potassium metasomatism in sedimentary rocks and paleosols, with implications for paleoweathering conditions and provenance. Geology 23(10):921–924

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Floyd PA, Leveridge BE (1987) Tectonic environments of the Devonian Gramscatho basin, south Cornwall: framework mode and geochemical evidence from turbidite sandstones. J Geological Soc London 144:531–542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girty GH, Barber RW (1993) REE, Th, and Sc evidence for the depositional setting and source rock characteristics of the Quartz Hill chert, Sierra Nevada, California. In: Johnsson MJ, Basu A (eds) Processes controlling the composition of clastic sediments, Geological Society America Special paper, pp 109–119

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Haq B, Al-Qahtani A (2005) Phanerozoic cycles of sea-level change on the Arabian Platform. GeoArabia 10(2):127–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi KI, Fujisawa H, Holland HD, Ohmoto H (1997) Geochemistry of ~1.9 Ga sedimentary rocks from northeastern Labrador, Canada. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 16(19):4115e4137

    Google Scholar 

  • Hindrix MS (2000) Evaluation of Mesozoic sandstone composition, southern Junggar, northern Tarim and western Turran basins, northwest China: a detrital record of the ancestral Tian Shan. J Sediment Res 70:520–532

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hseu ZY, Tsai H, His HC, Chen YC (2007) Weathering sequences of clay minerals in soils along a serpentinitic toposequence. Clays Clay Minerals 55(4):389–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain M (2001) Framework mineralogy, diagenesis and provenance of the Wajid sandstone in Asir region, Southwestern Saudi Arabia. Report, KACST Project no. LPG 283, p 75

    Google Scholar 

  • Husseini MI (1990) The Cambro-Ordovician Arabian and adjoining plate: a glacio-eustatic model. J Petroleum Geol 13(3):267–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Husseini MI (1991) Tectonic and depositional model of the Arabian and adjoining plates during the Silurian–Devonian. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 75:108–120

    Google Scholar 

  • James GA, Wynd JG (1965) Stratigraphic nomenclature of Iranian oil consortium agreement area. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 49:2182–2245

    Google Scholar 

  • Jassim SZ, Buday T (2006) Paleozoic Megasequences (AP1- AP5). In: Jassim SZ, Goff JC (eds) Geology of Iraq, Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum. Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum, Czech Republic, pp 91–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones PJ, Stump TE (1999) Depositional and tectonic setting of the Lower Silurian hydrocarbon source rock facies, Central Saudi Arabia. Am Assoc Petroleum Geologists Bull 83(2):314–332

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeley ML (1989) The Paleozoic history of the Western Desert of Egypt. Basin Res 2:35–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keeley ML (1994) Phanerozoic evolution of the basins of Northern Egypt and adjacent areas. Geologische Rundschau 43:728–742

    Google Scholar 

  • Kettanah YA, Armstrong-Altrin JS, Mohammad FA (2020) Petrography and geochemistry of siliciclastic rocks of the Middle Eocene Gercus Formation, northern Iraq: implications for provenance and tectonic setting. Geological J. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3880

  • Konert G, Afifi A, Al-Hajri S, Droste H (2001) Paleozoic stratigraphy and hydrocarbon habitat of the Arabian Plate. GeoArabia 6(1):407–442

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Heron DP, Craig J, Etienne JL (2009) Ancient glaciations and hydrocarbon accumulations in North Africa and the Middle East. Earth-Science Rev 93(3-4):47–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López JMG, Bauluz B, Fernández-Nieto C, Oliete AY (2005) Factors controlling the trace- element distribution in fine-grained rocks: the Albian kaolinite-rich deposits of the Oliete Basin (NE Spain). Chem Geol 214:1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lüning S, Shahin YM, Loydell D, Al-Rabi HT, Masri A, Tarawneh B, Kolonic S (2005) Anatomy of a world-class source rock: distribution and depositional model of Silurian organic-rich shales in Jordan and implications for hydrocarbon potential. AAPG Bull 89:1397–1427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mader D, Neubauer F (2004) Provenance of Paleozoic sandstones from the Carnic Alps (Austria): petrographic and geochemical indicators. Int J Earth Sci 93:262–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madhavaraju J, Ramasamy S (2002) Petrography and geochemistry of Late Maastrichtian Early Paleocene sediments of Tiruchirapalli Cretaceous, Tamil Nadue paleoweathering and provenance implications. J Geol Soc India 59:133–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahmoud MD, Vaslet D, Husseini MI (1992) The Lower Silurian Qalibah Formation of Saudi Arabia: an important hydrocarbon source rock. AAPG Bull 76(10):1491–1506

    Google Scholar 

  • Majidee FMQ (1999) The reasons of high temperature in well Akkas-1 and its effects on maturation’s time of source rocks. MSc. Thesis, University of Baghdad, Iraq.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maynard JB, Valloni R, Yu HS (1982) Composition of modern deep-sea sands from arc-related basin. In: Leggett JK (ed) Trench forearc geology: sedimentation and tectonics on modern and ancient active plate margins. Geology Society of London Special Publication, pp 551–561

  • McBride EF (1985) Diagenetic processes that affect provenance determinations in sandstone. In: Zuffa GG (ed) Provenance of Arenite. Reidel, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • McClure HA (1978) Early Paleozoic glaciation in Arabia. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 25:315–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGillivray JG, Husseini MI (1992) The Paleozoic petroleum geology of central Arabia. AAPG Bulletin 76:1473–1490

    Google Scholar 

  • McLennan SM (1989) Rare earth elements in sedimentary rocks: influence of provenance and sedimentary processes. Rev Mineral 21:169–200

    Google Scholar 

  • McLennan SM, Hemming S, McDaniel DK, Hanson GN (1993) Geochemical approaches to sedimentation, provenance and tectonics. In: Johnsson JM, Basu A (eds) Processes controlling the composition of clastic sediments. Geological Society of America Special Paper, pp 21–40

  • McLennan SM, Taylor SR (1991) Sedimentary rocks and crustal evolution: tectonic setting and secular trends. J Geol 99:1–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLennan SM, Taylor SR, Mc Culloch MT, Maynard JB (1990) Geochemical and Nd-Sr isotopic composition of deep-sea turbidites: crustal evolution and plate tectonic associations. Geochimica et Cosmochica Acta 54:2015–2050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Millson JA, Mercadier CG, Livera SE, Peters JM (1996) The Lower Paleozoic of Oman and its context in the evolution of a Gondwanan continental margin. J Geol Soc London 153:213–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammed IQ, Farouk S, Baioumy H, Lotfy NM, Al-Hadidy AH (2020) Mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the Paleozoic source rocks, Akkas gas field, western desert of Iraq: implications for their origin, maturation and Ordovician-Silurian transition. Marine Petroleum Geol 118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104432

  • Moradi AV, Sarı A, Akkaya P (2016) Geochemistry of the Miocene oil shale (Hancili Formation) in the Cankırı-Corum Basin, Central Turkey: implications for paleoclimate conditions, source–area weathering, provenance and tectonic setting. Sedimentary Geol 341:289–303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1982) Early Proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature 299:715–717

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1989) Formation and diagenesis of weathering profiles. J Geol 97:129–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyakairu GWA, Koeberl C (2001) Mineralogical and chemical composition and distribution of rare earth elements in clay-rich sediments from Central Uganda. Geochem J 35:13–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osae S, Asiedu DK, Banoeng-Yakubo B, Koeberl C, Dampare SB (2006) Provenance and tectonic setting of Late Proterozoic Buem sandstones of southeastern Ghana: evidence from geochemistry and detrital modes. J Asian Earth Sci 44:85–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettijohn FJ, Potter PE, Siever R (1972) Sand and sandstones. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettijohn FJ, Potter PE, Siever R (1987) Sand and sandstone, 2nd edn. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Potter PE (1978) Petrology and chemistry of modern Big River sands. J Geol 86:423–449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prego R, Caetano M, Vale C, Marmolejo-Rodríguez J (2009) Rare earth elements in sediments of the Vigo Ria, NW Iberian Peninsula. Cont. Shelf Research 29:896–902

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman MJJ, Sayem ASM, McCann T (2014) Geochemistry and provenance of the Miocene sandstones of the Surma Group from the Sitapahar anticline, Southeastern Bengal Basin, Bangladesh. J Geological Soc India 83:447e456

    Google Scholar 

  • Rimmer SM (2004) Geochemical paleoredox indicators in Devonian-Mississippian black shales, Central Appalachian Basin (USA). Chem Geol 206:373–391

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roser BP, Cooper RA, Nathan S, Tulloch AJ (1996) Reconnaissance sandstone geochemistry, provenance, and tectonic setting of the lower Paleozoic terrains of the West Coast and Nelson, New Zealand. N Z J Geol Geophysics 39:1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roser BP, Korsch RJ (1986) Determination of tectonic setting of sandstone mudstone suites using SiO2 content and K2O/Na2O ratio. J Geol 94:635–650

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross DJK, Bustin RM (2009) Investigating the use of sedimentary geochemical proxies for paleoenvironment interpretation of thermally mature organic-rich strata: examples from the Devonian-Mississippian shales, Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. Chem Geol 260:1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy DK, Roser BP (2013) Climatic control on the composition of Carboniferous–Permian Gondwana sediments, Khalaspir basin, Bangladesh. Gondwana Res 23(3):1163–1171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan KA, Williams DM (2007) Testing the reliability of discrimination diagrams for determining the tectonic depositional environment of ancient sedimentary basins. Chem Geol 242(1-2):103–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selvaraj K, Chen CTA (2006) Moderate chemical weathering of subtropical Taiwan: constraints from solid-phase geochemistry of sediments and sedimentary rocks. J Geol 114:101–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Senalp M, Al-Laboun AA (2000) New evidence on the Late Ordovician glaciation in central Saudi Arabia. Saudi Aramco J Technol:11–40

  • Sharland PR, Archer R, Casey DM, Davies RB, Hall S, Heward AP, Horbury AD, Simmons MD (2001) Arabian plate sequence stratigraphy. Gulf Petrolink, Manama

    Google Scholar 

  • Stampfli G, Marcoux J, Baud A (1991) Tethyan margins in space and time. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Paleoecol 87:373–409

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stöcklin J (1968) Structural history and tectonics of Iran: a review. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 52:1229–1258

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun S-s, McDonough WF (1989) Chemical and isotopic systematics of ocean basalt: implication for mantle composition and processes. Geol Soc London Spec Public 42:313–345. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1989.042.01.19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tawfik HA, Ghandour IM, Maejima W, Armstrong-Altrin JS, Abdel-Hameed AMT (2015) Petrography and geochemistry of the siliciclastic Araba Formation (Cambrian), east Sinai, Egypt: implications for provenance, tectonic setting and source weathering. Geological Magazine 154:1–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor SR, McLennan SH (1985) The geochemical evolution of the continental crust. Rev Geophys 33:241–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobia FH, Mustafa BH (2016) Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Al-rich shale from Baluti formation, Iraqi Kurdistan region: implications for weathering and provenance. Arabian J Geosci 9:757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2762-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobia FH, Shangola SS (2016) Mineralogy, geochemistry, and depositional environment of the Beduh Shale (Lower Triassic), Northern Thrust Zone, Iraq. Turkish J Earth Sci 25:367–391

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van de Kamp PP, Leake BE (1985) Petrography and geochemistry of feldspathic and mafic sediments of the northeastern Pacific margin. Trans R Soc Edinb Earth Sci. 76:411–449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaslet D (1990) Upper Ordovician glacial deposits in Saudi Arabia. Episodes 13:147–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verma SP, Armstrong-Altrin JS (2013) New multi-dimensional diagrams for tectonic discrimination of siliciclastic sediments and their application to Precambrian basins. Chem Geol 355:117–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verma SP, Armstrong-Altrin JS (2016) Geochemical discrimination of siliciclastic sediments from active and passive margin settings. Sedimentary Geology 332:1–12

  • Wanas HA, Abdel-Maguid NM (2006) Petrography and geochemistry of the Cambro-Ordovician Wajid Sandstone, southwest Saudi Arabia: implications for provenance and tectonic setting. J Asian Earth Sci 27:416–429

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang ZW, Wang J, Fu XG, Feng X, Wang D, Song CY, Chen WB, Zeng SQ (2017) Petrography and geochemistry of Upper Triassic Sandstones from the Tumengela Formation in the Woruo Mountain area, North Qiangtang Basin, Tibet: implications for provenance, Source Area Weathering and Tectonic Setting. Island Arc 26. https://doi.org/10.1111/iar.12191

  • Weaver CE (1989) Clays, muds, shales. Developments in sedimentology. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfart R (1981) Lower Paleozoic rocks of the Middle East. In: Holland CH (ed) Lower Paleozoic Rocks of the Middle East, Eastern and Southern Africa, and Antarctica. Wiley, Chichester, pp 6–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Wronkiewicz DJ, Condie KC (1990) Geochemistry and mineralogy of sediments from the Ventersdorp and Transvaal Supergroups, South Africa: cratonic evolution during the early Proterozoic. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 54:343–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yandoka BMS, Abdullah WH, Abubakar MB, Hakimi MH, Adegoke AK (2015) Geochemical characterization of early Cretaceous lacustrine sediments of Bima formation, Yola Sub-basin, northern Benue trough, NE Nigeria: organic matter input, preservation, paleoenvironment and palaeoclimatic conditions. Marine Petroleum Geol 61:82–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaid SM (2013) Provenance, diagenesis, tectonic setting and reservoir quality of the sandstones of the Kareem Formation, Gulf of Suez, Egypt. J Afr Earth Sci 85:31–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Wang Y, Geng H, Zhang Y, Fan W, Zhong H (2013) Early Neoproterozoic (~850 Ma) back-arc basin in the central Jiangnan Orogen (eastern South China): geochronological and petrogenetic constraints from metabasalts. Precambrian Res 231:325–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Geology Department, College of Science, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq

    Ali I. Al-Juboury, Salim H. Hussain & Safwan H. Al-Lhaebi

Authors
  1. Ali I. Al-Juboury
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Salim H. Hussain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Safwan H. Al-Lhaebi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ali I. Al-Juboury.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Domenico M. Doronzo

Supplementary data

Fig. S1

Bivariate plots between selected major element oxides of shales and sandstones of the Akkas Formation (PDF 98 kb)

Table S1

Sensitive ratios for palaeoweathering, palaeoclimatic, provenance and tectonic setting indices (DOC 124 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Al-Juboury, A.I., Hussain, S.H. & Al-Lhaebi, S.H. Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Silurian Akkas Formation, Iraqi western desert: implications for palaeoweathering, provenance and tectonic setting. Arab J Geosci 14, 760 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-06887-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-06887-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation