Abstract
The water supply and distribution system in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, was investigated for the presence of viable Cryptosporidium and Giardia. A total of 115 samples were collected from water sources, treated water storage tanks, and tap water. Microbial sample collection and analysis were according to U.S. EPA method 1623. The physical and chemical water parameters were also determined in each water sample. Viable Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts, collectively referred to as (oo)cysts, were found in two-thirds of the surface raw water samples. Only one of the three raw well water samples had viable oocysts and none had viable cysts. Of the treated water storage tanks, 35% had oocysts (none were viable), and 29% had cysts (only viable in one case). Of the tap water samples 21% had oocysts and 7% had viable oocysts. 1% of the tap samples had cysts, 6% had viable cysts. Turbidity was the only parameter found to correlate with the presence of (oo)cysts. While only one of the treated water storage tanks had viable (oo)cysts, the presence of non-viable (oo)cysts is indicative of problems with the water treatment system. The presence of viable (oo)cysts in the tap water samples showed contamination of treated water during distribution, potentially from underground sewage. There was a statistically significant decrease in free chlorine from the storage tanks to the tap. 22% of the tap samples had no measurable free chlorine. This situation poses health risks to residents of Addis Abba, especially to those with compromised immune system.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AASWA (2008) Conjunctive use of surface and ground water resources. Addis Ababa Sewage and Water Authority
Adamu H, Endeshaw T, Teka T, Kifle A, Petro B (2006) The prevalence of intestinal parasites in paediatric diarrhoeal and non-diarrhoeal patients in Addis Ababa hospitals, with special emphasis on opportunistic parasitic infections and with insight into the demographic and socio-economic factors. Ethiop J Health Dev 20(1):39–46
Adamu H (2010) The prevalence of intestinal parasites and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium species in Ethiopia. PhD thesis, Faculty of Science, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Angarano G, Maggie P, DiBari AM, Larocca A, Congedo P, Bari C, Brandonisio O, Chiodo F (1997) Giardiasis in HIV: a possible role in patients with severe immune deficiency. Eur J Epidemiol 13(4):485–487
Appelbee A, Thompson A, Olson M (2005) Giardia and Cryptosporidium in mammalian wildlife current status and future needs. Trends in Parasitol 21(8):370–376
Ayalew D, Boelee E, Endeshar T, Oeteros B (2008) Cryptosporidium and Giardia infection and drinking water sources among children in Lege Dini, Ethiopia. Trop Med Int Health 13(4):472–475
Betancourt WQ, Rose JB (2004) Drinking water treatment process for removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Vet Parasitol 126:219–234
Campbell A, Robertson L, Snith H (1992) Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts correlation of in vitro excystation with inclusion or exclusion of fluorogenic vital dyes. Appl Environ Microbiol 58(11):3488–3493
Crampton J (2005) Maintaining clean water: contamination during water collection and storage in Addis Ababa. Water Aid Ethiopia, Addis Ababa
DeRegnier DP, Cole P, Schupp D, Erlandsen S (1989) Viability of Giardia cysts suspended in lake, river and tap water. Appl Environ Microbiol 55(5):1223–1229
Eyasu T (2007) Drinking water source and the prevalence of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum among children in selected villages of Pawi special district, Benishangul Gumuz region. Master’s thesis, Faculty of Science, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Fikre N, Hailu H, Belete H (2008) Determination and enumeration of Cryptosporidium oocyst and Giardia cysts in Legedadi (Addis Ababa) municipal drinking water system. Ethiop J Health Dev 22(1):68–70
Franco RM, Rocha-Eberhardt R, Cantusio N (2001) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in raw water from the Atibaia River, Campinas, Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop São Paulo 43(2):109–111
Houpt ER, Bushen O, Sam N, Kohli A, Asgharpour A, Ng C, Calfee D, Guerrant R, Maro V, Ole-Nguyaine S, Shao J (2005) Asymptomatic Cryptosporidium hominis infection among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73(3):520–522
Huang DB, White CA (2006) An updated review of Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 35(2):291–314
Hunter PR, Nicholas G (2002) Epidemiology and clinical features of Cryptosporidium infection in immunocompromised patients. Clin Microbiol Rev 15(1):145–154
Hunter PR, Thompson RA (2005) The zoonotic transmission of Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Int J Parasitol 35(11–12):1181–1190
Karanis P, Sotiriadou I, Kartashev V, Kourenti C, Tsvetkova N, Stojanova K (2006) Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water supplies of Russia and Bulgaria. Environ Res 102(3):260–271
Karanis P, Kourenti C, Smith H (2007) Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: a worldwide review of outbreaks and lessons learnt. J Water Health 5(1):1–38
MacKenzie WR, Hoxie N, Proctor M, Gradus S, Blair K, Peterson D, Kazmierczk J, Addis D, Fox K, Rose J, Davis J (1994) Massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med 331(3):161–167
Federal HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Office (2010) HIV/AIDS country report for Ethiopia. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, Addis Ababa
Robertson L, Campbell A, Smith H (1992) Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under various environmental conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 58(11):3494–3500
Savioli L, Smith H, Thompson A (2006) Giardia and Cryptosporidium join the Neglected Diseases Initiative. Trends Parasitol 22(5):203–208
Shields JM, Gleim E, Beach M (2008) Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp and Giardia intestinalis in swimming pools, Atlanta, Georgia. Emerg Infect Dis 14(6):948–950
Shimelis D, Benti D, Challi D (2008) Effect of zinc supplementation in treatment of acute diarrhoea among 2–59 months children treated in Black Lion Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Dev 22(2):187–190
Smith H, Cacci S, Cook N, Nichols R, Tait A (2007) Cryptosporidium and Giardia as foodborne zoonoses. Vet Parasitol 149:29–40
Tekola E, Mohamod H, Tiliahun W (2004) Cryptosporidium parvum and other intestinal parasites among diarrheal patients referred to EHNRI in Ethiopia. Ethiop Med J 42(3):195–198
Thompson RA (2000) Giardiasis as a reemerging infectious disease and its zoonotic potential. Int J Parasitol 30(12–13):1259–1267
Thompson RA (2004) The zoonotic significance and molecular epidemiology of Giardia and giardiasis. Vet Parasitol 126(1–2):15–35
UNESCO (2004) National Water Development Program for Ethiopia. World Water Assessment Program. World Health Organization, Geneva
USEPA (2005) Method 1623: Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Water by Filtration/IMS/FA. United State Environmental Protection Agency
WHO (2008) Guidelines for drinking-drinking quality, 3rd edn, incorporating first and second addenda
WHO (2009) Ethiopia—Emergency and Humanitarian Action Weekly update 31 August–6 September 2009. www.who.int/hac/crises/eth/sitreps/6september2009/en/index.html
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Atnafu, T., Kassa, H., Keil, C. et al. Presence, Viability and Determinants of Cryptosporidium Oocysts and Giardia Cysts in the Addis Ababa Water Supply and Distribution System. Water Qual Expo Health 4, 55–65 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-012-0065-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-012-0065-z