Abstract
Chronic dissociative reactions and dissociative disorders can occur following traumatic events and are associated with suffering and impaired functioning. Therefore, trauma-related dissociation could be part of the claims made in civil actions or contribute to mitigation or an insanity defense in criminal actions. Dissociative reactions to trauma, including dissociative disorders, are more common than most mental health professionals realize. Unfortunately, few professionals have training in the assessment of dissociation, and forensic experts may be unaware of research indicating that standard interpretations of well-regarded assessment instruments can result in inaccurate determinations of symptom exaggeration in cases with dissociation. This paper is the second paper of a two-part series that aims to expand assessors’ knowledge about trauma-related dissociation (TRD) and enhance their ability to assess and present information about dissociation. In this article, we focus on the forensic assessment of TRD and discuss: dissociative symptoms; complex trauma; trauma-related disorders; an approach to assessment of TRD; trauma-related reactions that can impede the detection of TRD; and differential diagnosis of genuine versus feigned dissociation. In addition, we review research related to the validity and appropriate interpretation of the following measures in use with persons with TRD: Dissociative Experiences Scale, Multiscale Dissociation Inventory, Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire, Trauma Symptom Inventory-2, Multidimensional Inventory of Dissociation, Structured Clinical Interview for Dissociative Disorders-Revised, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2, Personality Assessment Inventory, Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms, Test of Memory Malingering, and the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afifi, T. O., Mather, A., Boman, J., Fleisher, W., Enns, M. W., MacMillan, H., & Sareen, J. (2011). Childhood adversity and personality disorders: Results from a nationally representative population-based study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 814–822.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
American Psychological Association. (2013). Specialty guidelines for forensic psychology. American Psychologist, 68(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029889.
Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., Ochera, J., Morton, J., Bekerian, D. A., Davies, G. M., & Mollon, P. (2000). The timing, triggers and qualities of recovered memories in therapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39(1), 11–26.
Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (2000). Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: The role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 69–73.
Armstrong, J. G. (1994). Reflections on multiple personality disorder as a developmentally complex adaptation. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 49, 349–364.
Armstrong, J. (2017). Incorporating trauma into an assessment interview. In S. N. Gold & S. N. Gold (Eds.), APA handbook of trauma psychology: Trauma practice (pp. 31–40). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Barlow, M. R., Pezdek, K., & Blandón-Gitlin, I. (2017). Trauma and memory. In S. N. Gold & S. N. Gold (Eds.), APA handbook of trauma psychology: Foundations in knowledge (pp. 307–331). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Ben-Porath, Y. S., & Tellegen, A. (2008). MMPI-2-RF (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form) manual for administration, scoring, and interpretation. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press.
Boon, S., & Draijer, N. (1991). Diagnosing dissociative disorders in The Netherlands: A pilot study with the structured clinical interview for DSM-III-R dissociative disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 148(4), 458–462.
Boon, S., & Draijer, N. (1993). The differentiation of patients with MPD or DDNOS from patients with a cluster B personality disorder. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 6(2–3), 126–135.
Brand, B. L., Armstrong, J. G., & Loewenstein, R. J. (2006). Psychological assessment of patients with dissociative identity disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29, 145–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2005.10.014.
Brand, B. L., & Chasson, G. S. (2015). Distinguishing simulated from genuine dissociative identity disorder on the MMPI-2. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(1), 93–101.
Brand, B. L., Chasson, G. S., Polermo, C. A., Donato, F. M., Rhodes, K. P., & Voorhees, E. F. (in press). Truth is in the details: a comparison of MMPI-2 item endorsements by patients with dissociative identity disorder patients versus simulators. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law.
Brand, B., Classen, C., Lanius, R., Loewenstein, R., McNary, S., Pain, C., & Putnam, F. (2009). A naturalistic study of dissociative identity disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified patients treated by community clinicians. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 1(2), 153-171
Brand, B. L., & Lanius, R. A. (2014). Chronic complex dissociative disorders and borderline personality disorder: disorders of emotion dysregulation? Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 1, 13–13.
Brand, B. L., & Loewenstein, R. J. (2010). Dissociative disorders: An overview of assessment, phenomenology and treatment. Psychiatric Times, 27(10), 62–69.
Brand, B. L., McNary, S. W., Loewenstein, R. J., Kolos, A. C., & Barr, S. R. (2006). Assessment of genuine and simulated dissociative identity disorder on the structured interview of reported symptoms. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 7(1), 63–85.
Brand, B. L., McNary, S. W., Myrick, A. C., Classen, C. C., Lanius, R., Loewenstein, R. J., et al. (2013). A longitudinal naturalistic study of patients with dissociative disorders treated by community clinicians. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(4), 301–308.
Brand, B. L., Schielke, H., & Brams, J. (2017). Assisting the Courts in Understanding and Connecting with Experiences of Disconnection: Addressing Trauma-related Dissociation as a Forensic Psychologist, Part I. Psychological Injury and Law, this issue.
Brand, B. L., Tursich, M., Tzall, D., & Loewenstein, R. J. (2014). Utility of the SIRS-2 in distinguishing genuine from simulated dissociative identity disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(4), 308–317.
Brand, B. L., Webermann, A. R., & Frankel, A. S. (2016). Assessment of complex dissociative disorder patients and simulated dissociation in forensic contexts. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 49(Part B), 197–204.
Brand, B. L., Webermann, A. R., Snyder, B. L. & Kaliush, P. R. (under review). Detecting Genuine and Simulated Dissociative Identity Disorder with the Test of Memory Malingering. Archives of Scientific Psychology.
Brazelton, J. F. (2015). The secret storm: exploring the disclosure process of African American women survivors of child sexual abuse across the life course. Traumatology, 21(3), 181–187.
Brewin, C. R. (2012). A theoretical framework for understanding recovered memory experiences. In R. F. Belli & R. F. Belli (Eds.), True and false recovered memories: Toward a reconciliation of the debate (Vol. 58, pp. 149–173). New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
Brewin, C. R., & Andrews, B. (2017). Creating memories for false autobiographical events in childhood: a systematic review. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 31(1), 2–23.
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.
Brewin, C. R., Kleiner, J. S., Vasterling, J. J., & Field, A. P. (2007). Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(3), 448–463.
Briere, J. (2002). Multiscale Dissociation Inventory Professional Manual. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Briere, J. (2006). Dissociative symptoms and trauma exposure: specificity, affect dysregulation, and posttraumatic stress. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194(2), 78–82.
Briere, J. (2011). Trauma symptom inventory (TSI-2) professional manual (2nd ed.). Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Briere, J., Dias, C. P., Semple, R. J., Scott, C., Bigras, N., & Godbout, N. (2017). Acute stress symptoms in seriously injured patients: Precipitating versus cumulative trauma and the Contribution of Peritraumatic Distress. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(4), 381–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22200.
Briere, J., Dietrich, A., & Semple, R. J. (2016). Dissociative complexity: antecedents and clinical correlates of a new construct. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(5), 577–584.
Briere, J., & Elliott, D. M. (2003). Prevalence and psychological sequelae of self-reported childhood physical and sexual abuse in a general population sample of men and women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, 1205–1222.
Briere, J., & Rickards, S. (2007). Self-awareness, affect regulation, and relatedness: differential sequels of childhood versus adult victimization experiences. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(6), 497–503.
Briere, J., & Scott, C. (2015). Principles of trauma therapy: A guide to symptoms, evaluation, and treatment. Los Angeles: Sage.
Briere, J., & Spinazzola, J. (2009). Assessment of the sequelae of complex trauma: Evidence based measures. In C. Courtois & J. Ford (Eds.), Complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based clinician’s guide (pp. 104–123). New York: Guilford.
Briere, J., Weathers, F. W., & Runtz, M. (2005). Is dissociation a multidimensional construct? Data from the multiscale dissociation inventory. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(3), 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20024.
Brown, L. S. (2009). True drama or true trauma? Forensic trauma assessment and the challenge of detecting malingering. In P. F. Dell, J. A. O’Neil, P. F. Dell, & J. A. O’Neil (Eds.), Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM-V and beyond (pp. 585–595). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Brown, R. J., & Lewis-Fernández, R. (2011). Culture and conversion disorder: implications for DSM-5. Psychiatry, 74(3), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2011.74.3.187.
Brown, D., & Scheflin, A. W. (1999). Factitious disorders and trauma-related diagnoses. Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 27, 373–422.
Caldwell, A. B. (2001). What do the MMPI scales fundamentally measure? Some hypotheses. Journal of Personality Assessment, 76(1), 1–17.
Calhoun, P. S., Collie, C. F., Clancy, C. P., Braxton, L. E., & Beckham, J. C. (2010). Using the PAI in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder among help-seeking veterans. In M. A. Blais, M. R. Baity, & C. J. Hopwood (Eds.), Clinical applications of the personality assessment inventory (pp. 93–111). New York: Routledge.
Cardeña, E., & Carlson, E. (2011). Acute stress disorder revisited. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 245–267.
Carlson, E.B., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experience Scale. Dissociation, 6, 16–27.
Chu, J. A. (1991). On the misdiagnosis of multiple personality disorder. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 4, 200–204.
Classen, C. C., Palesh, O. G., & Aggarwal, R. (2005). Sexual revictimization: a review of the empirical literature. Trauma Violence Abuse, 6(2), 103–129.
Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B. C., Herman, J. L., Kolk, B. v. d., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., & Petkova, E. (2009). A developmental approach to complex PTSD: childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(5), 399–408.
Cook, J. M., Dinnen, S., Rehman, O., Bufka, L., & Courtois, C. (2011). Responses of a sample of practicing psychologists to questions about clinical work with trauma and interest in specialized training. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 3(3), 253–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025048.
Cook, J. M., & Newman, E. (2014). A consensus statement on trauma mental health: The new haven competency conference process and major findings. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice & Policy, 6(4), 300–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036747.
Cook, J. M., Simiola, V., Ellis, A. E., & Thompson, R. (2017). Training in trauma psychology- a national survey of doctoral graduate programs. Training And Education In Professional Psychology, 11(2), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000150.
Coons, P. M., & Milstein, V. (1994). Factitious or malingered multiple personality disorder: Eleven cases. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 7(2), 81–85.
Courtois, C. A., & Ford, J. D. (2013). Treatment of complex trauma: A sequenced, relationship-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.
Courtois, C. A., & Gold, S. N. (2009). The need for inclusion of psychological trauma in the professional curriculum: A call to action. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 1(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015224.
Dalenberg, C. J. (2006). Recovered memory and the Daubert criteria: recovered memory as professionally tested, peer reviewed, and accepted in the relevant scientific community. Trauma Violence Abuse, 7(4), 274–310.
Dalenberg, C. J., Brand, B. L., Gleaves, D. H., Dorahy, M. J., Loewenstein, R. J., Cardena, E., et al. (2012). Evaluation of the evidence for the trauma and fantasy models of dissociation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(3), 550–588.
Dalenberg, C. J., & Briere, J. (2017). Psychometric assessment of trauma. In S. N. Gold & S. N. Gold (Eds.), APA handbook of trauma psychology: Trauma practice (pp. 41–63). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Dalenberg, C. J., Straus, E., & Ardill, M. (2017). Forensic psychology in the context of trauma. In S. N. Gold & S. N. Gold (Eds.), APA handbook of trauma psychology: Trauma practice (pp. 543–563). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
DeCou, C. R., Cole, T. T., Lynch, S. M., Wong, M. M., & Matthews, K. C. (2017). Assault-related shame mediates the association between negative social reactions to disclosure of sexual assault and psychological distress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(2), 166–172.
Dell, P. F. (2002). Dissociative phenomenology of dissociative identity disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(1), 10–15.
Dell, P. F. (2006). The multidimensional inventory of dissociation (MID): a comprehensive measure of pathological dissociation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 7(2), 77–106.
DePrince, A. P., Brown, L. S., Cheit, R. E., Freyd, J. J., Gold, S. N., Pezdek, K., & Quina, K. (2012). Motivated forgetting and misremembering: perspectives from betrayal trauma theory. In R. F. Belli & R. F. Belli (Eds.), True and false recovered memories: Toward a reconciliation of the debate (Vol. 58, pp. 193–242). New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
Dorahy, M. J., Corry, M., Shannon, M., Webb, K., McDermott, B., Ryan, M., & Dyer, K. F. W. (2013). Complex trauma and intimate relationships: the impact of shame, guilt and dissociation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147(1–3), 72–79.
Draijer, N., & Boon, S. (1999). The imitation of dissociative identity disorder: patients at risk, therapists at risk. Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 27(3–4), 423–458.
Ehlers, A. (2006). More evidence for the role of persistent dissociation in PTSD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(6), 1112–1112. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.6.1112.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345.
Elhai, J. D., Gold, S. N., Sellers, A. H., & Dorfman, W. I. (2001). The detection of malingered posttraumatic stress disorder with MMPI-2 fake bad indices. Assessment, 8, 221–236.
Elhai, J. D., Naifeh, J. A., Zucker, I. S., Gold, S. N., Deitsch, S. E., & Frueh, B. C. (2004). Discriminating malingered from genuine civilian posttraumatic stress disorder: A validation of three MMPI-2 infrequency scales (F, Fp, and Fptsd). Assessment, 11, 139–144.
Engels, M., Moisan, D., & Harris, R. (1994). MMPI indices of childhood trauma among 110 outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 63, 135–147.
Feiring, C., & Taska, L. (2005). The persistence of shame following childhood sexual abuse: A longitudinal look at risk and recovery. Child Maltreatment, 10, 337–349.
Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2010). The relationship of adverse childhood experiences to adult medical disease, psychiatric disorders and sexual behavior. In R. A. Lanius, E. Vermetten, & C. Pain (Eds.), The hidden epidemic: The impact of early life trauma on health and disease (pp. 77–87). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Frankel, A. S. (2009). Dissociation and dissociative disorders: clinical and forensic assessment with adults. In P. F. Dell, J. A. O’Neil, P. F. Dell, & J. A. O’Neil (Eds.), Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM-V and beyond (pp. 571–583). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Frankel, A. S., & Dalenberg, C. (2006). The forensic evaluation of dissociation and persons diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder: searching for convergence. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29(1), 169–184.
Freyd, J. J. (1996). Betrayal trauma: the logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Cambridge: Harvard.
Friedl, M. C., & Draijer, N. (2000). Dissociative disorders in Dutch psychiatric inpatients. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(6), 1012–1013.
Friedl, M. C., Draijer, N., & de Jonge, P. (2000). Prevalence of dissociative disorders in psychiatric in-patients: the impact of study characteristics. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102(6), 423–428.
Gast, U., Rodewald, F., Nickel, V., & Emrich, H. M. (2001). Prevalence of dissociative disorders among psychiatric inpatients in a German university clinic. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189(4), 249–257. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200104000-00007.
Goff, D. C., Olin, J. A., Jenike, M. A., Baer, L., & Buttolph, M. L. (1992). Dissociative symptoms in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180(5), 332–337.
Gudjonsson, G. H., & Clark, N. K. (1986). A theoretical model of interrogative suggestibility. Social behavior, 1, 83–104.
Halligan, S. L., Michael, T., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: the role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(3), 419–431.
Herman, J. L. (1997). Trauma and recovery: the aftermath of violence—from domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic Books.
Herman, J. L. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder as a shame disorder. In R. L. Dearing, J. P. Tangney, R. L. Dearing, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Shame in the therapy hour (pp. 261–275). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Hodges, M., Godbout, N., Briere, J., Lanktree, C., Gilbert, A., & Kletzka, N. T. (2013). Cumulative trauma and symptom complexity in children: a path analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(11), 891–898.
Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2008). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, Mental health problems and barriers to care. U.S. Army Medical Department Journal, 7-17.
Holmes, E. A., Brown, R. J., Mansell, W., Fearon, R. P., Hunter, E. C. M., Frasquilho, F., & Oakley, D. A. (2005). Are there two qualitatively distinct forms of dissociation? A review and some clinical implications. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(1), 1–23.
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2006). Dissociative disorders among adults in the community, impaired functioning, and axis I and II comorbidity. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(2), 131–140.
Klotz Flitter, J. M., Elhai, J. D., & Gold, S. N. (2003). MMPI-2 F scale elevations in adult victims of child sexual abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(3), 269–274.
Korbanka, J. E. (1997). An MMPI-2 scale to identify history of sexual abuse. Psychological Reports, 81, 979–990. Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 487–491.
Korbanka, J. E., & Gaede, R. C. (2003). An MMPI-2 scale to identify reported history of emotional abuse. Psychological Reports, 92(2), 593–594.
Korbanka, J. E., & McKay, M. (2000). An MMPI-2 scale to identify history of physical abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 1131–1139.
Korzekwa, M. I., Dell, P. F., & Pain, C. (2009). Dissociation and borderline personality disorder: An update for clinicians. Current Psychiatry Reports, 11, 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-009-0013-1.
Kluft, R. P. (1987). The simulation and dissimulation of multiple personality disorder. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 30, 104–118.
Kluft, R. P. (2009). A clinician’s understanding of dissociation: fragments of an acquaintance. In P. F. Dell & J. A. O’Neil (Eds.), Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM-V and beyond (pp. 599–623). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Lanius, R. A., Brand, B., Vermetten, E., Frewen, P. A., & Spiegel, D. (2012). The dissociative subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder: rationale, clinical and neurobiological evidence, and implications. Depression and Anxiety, 29(8), 701–708.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Bluhm, R. L., Densmore, M., Boksman, K., Neufeld, R. W. J., … Menon, R. S. (2005). Functional connectivity of dissociative responses in posttraumatic stress disorder: A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 873–884. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.011
Lanius, R. A., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., Brand, B. L., Schmahl, C., Bremner, J. D., & Spiegel, D. (2010). Emotional modulation in PTSD: clinical and neurobiological evidence for a dissociative subtype. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 640–647.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Boksman, K., Densmore, M., Gupta, M., Neufeld, R. W. J., et al. (2002). Brain activation during script-driven imagery induced dissociative responses in PTSD: A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 305–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01367-7.
Lanius, R. A., Wolf, E. J., Miller, M. W., Frewen, P. A., Vermetten, E., Brand, B. L., & Spiegel, D. (2014). The dissociative subtype of PTSD. In M. J. Friedman, T. M. Keane, & P. A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (2nd ed., pp. 234–250). New York: Guilford Press.
Leavitt, F. (2001). MMPI profile characteristics of women with varying levels of normal dissociation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(12), 1469–1477.
Loewenstein, R. J. (2014). Dissociative amnesia. In G. O. Gabbard & G. O. Gabbard (Eds.), Gabbard’s treatments of psychiatric disorders (pp. 471–478). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc..
Loewenstein, R. J., Frewen, P. A., & Lewis-Fernández, R. (2017). Dissociative disorders. In B. J. Sadock, V. A. Sadock, & P. Ruiz (Eds.), Kaplan & Sadock’s comprehensive textbook of psychiatry (Vol. 1, 10th ed., pp. 1866–1952). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/ Lippincott Williams & Wilkens.
Lyssenko, L., Schmahl, C., Bockhacker, L., Vonderlin, R., Bohus, M., & Kleindienst, N. (2017). Dissociation in Psychiatric Disorders: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using the Dissociative Experiences Scale. The American Journal Of Psychiatry, appiajp201717010025. doi:https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17010025.
Maaranen, P., Tanskanen, A., Haatainen, K., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H., Hintikka, J., & Viinamäki, H. (2004). Somatoform dissociation and adverse childhood experiences in the general population. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192(5), 337–342.
Malmo, C., & Laidlaw, T. S. (2010). Symptoms of trauma and traumatic memory retrieval in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 11(1), 22–43.
Marion, B. E., Sellbom, M., & Bagby, R. M. (2011). The detection of feigned psychiatric disorders using the MMPI-2-RF overreporting validity scales: an analog investigation. Psychological Injury and Law, 4(1), 1–12.
Markowitsch, H. J. (2003). Psychogenic amnesia. NeuroImage, 20, S132–S138.
McGrath, R. E., Pogge, D. L., Stein, L. R., Graham, J. R., Zaccario, M., & Piacentini, T. (2000). Development of an infrequency-psychopathology scale for the MMPI-A: The Fp-a scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 74(2), 282–295.
McKinnon, M. C., Boyd, J. E., Frewen, P. A., Lanius, U. F., Jetly, R., Richardson, J. D., & Lanius, R. A. (2016). A review of the relation between dissociation, memory, executive functioning and social cognition in military members and civilians with neuropsychiatric conditions. Neuropsychologia, 90, 210–234.
McLaughlin, K. A., Koenen, K. C., Hill, E. D., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(8), 815–830.
Nathanson, D. L. (1989). Understanding what is hidden. Shame in sexual abuse. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12(2), 381–388.
Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Spinhoven, P., Van Dyck, R., Van der Hart, O., & Vanderlinden, J. (1996). The development and the psychometric characteristics of the somatoform dissociation questionnaire (SDQ-20). Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 688–694.
Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Spinhoven, P., Van Dyck, R., Van der Hart, O., & Vanderlinden, J. (1998a). Degree of somatoform and psychological dissociation in dissociative disorder is correlated with reported trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 711–730.
Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Spinhoven, P., Van Dyck, R., Van der Hart, O., & Vanderlinden, J. (1998b). Psychometric characteristics of the somatoform dissociation questionnaire: A replication study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 67, 17–23.
Nijenhuis, E., Van Der Hart, O., Kruger, K., & Steele, K. (2004). Somatoform dissociation, reported abuse and animal defence-like reactions. Australian & New Zealand Journal Of Psychiatry, 38(9), 678–686.
Noll, J. G., Horowitz, L. A., Bonanno, G. A., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (2003). Revictimization and self-harm in females who experienced childhood sexual abuse: results from a prospective study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(12), 1452–1471.
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52–73.
Palermo, C. A., & Brand, B. L. (under review). Can the Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 distinguish coached simulators from dissociative disorder patients? Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy.
Parlar, M., Frewen, P. A., Oremus, C., Lanius, R. A., & McKinnon, M. C. (2016). Dissociative symptoms are associated with reduced neuropsychological performance in patients with recurrent depression and a history of trauma exposure. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7.
Platt, M. G., & Freyd, J. J. (2015). Betray my trust, shame on me: Shame, dissociation, fear, and betrayal trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(4).
Putnam, F. W., Guroff, J. J., Silberman, E. K., Barban, L., & Post, R. M. (1986). The clinical phenomenology of multiple personality disorder: Review of 100 recent cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47(6), 285-293.
Reardon, A. F., Brief, D. J., Miller, M. W., & Keane, T. M. (2014). Assessment of PTSD and its comorbidities in adults. In M. J. Friedman, T. M. Keane, & P. A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD, second edition: Science and practice (pp. 369–390). New York: Guilford Press.
Rogers, R., Bagby, R. M., & Dickens, S. E. (1992). Structured interview of reported symptoms: Professional manual. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc..
Rogers, R., Gillard, N. D., Wooley, C. N., & Ross, C. A. (2012). The detection of feigned disabilities: The effectiveness of the Personality Assessment Inventory in a traumatized inpatient sample. Assessment, 19(1), 77-88.
Rogers, R., Payne, J. W., Correa, A. A., Gillard, N. D., & Ross, C. A. (2009). A study of the SIRS with severely traumatized patients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(5), 429–438.
Rogers, R., Sewell, K. W., & Gillard, N. D. (2010). Structured interview of reported symptoms (SIRS), 2nd edition: Professional manual. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc..
Rogers, R., Sewell, K. W., Martin, M. A., & Vitacco, M. J. (2003). Detection of feigned mental disorders: a meta-analysis of the MMPI-2 and malingering. Assessment, 10(2), 160–177.
Ross, C. A. (1991). Epidemiology of multiple personality disorder and dissociation. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(3), 503–517.
Ross, C. A., Ellason, J. W., & Anderson, G. (1995). A factor analysis of the Dissociative experiences scale (DES) in dissociative identity disorder. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 8(4), 229–235.
Ross, C. A., Joshi, S., & Currie, R. (1991). Dissociative experiences in the general population: A factor analysis. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 42(3), 297–301.
Şar, V., Akyüz, G., & Doğan, O. (2007). Prevalence of dissociative disorders among women in the general population. Psychiatry Research, 149(1–3), 169–176.
Şar, V., Akyuz, G., Kugu, N., Ozturk, E., & Ertem-Vehid, H. (2006). Axis I dissociative disorder comorbidity in borderline personality disorder and reports of childhood trauma. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(10), 1583–1590.
Şar, V., Akyuz, G., Ozturk, E., & Alioglu, F. (2013). Dissociative depression among women in the community. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 14(4), 423–438.
Simeon, D., & Loewenstein, R. J. (2009). Dissociative disorders. In B. J. Sadock, V. A. Sadock, & P. Ruiz (Eds.), Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry (Vol. 1, 9th ed., pp. 1965–2026). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/ Lippinoctt Williams & Wilkens.
Stadnik, R. D., Brand, B. L., & Savoca, A. (2013). Personality assessment inventory profile and predictors of elevations among dissociative disorder patients. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 14(5), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2013.792310.
Stein, D. J., Koenen, K. C., Friedman, M. J., Hill, E., McLaughlin, K. A., Petukhova, M., et al. (2013). Dissociation in posttraumatic stress disorder: evidence from the world mental health surveys. Biological Psychiatry, 73(4), 302–312.
Steinberg, M. (1994). The structured clinical interview for DSM-IV dissociative Disordersrevised (SCID-D-R). Washington: American Psychiatric Press.
Steinberg, M. (2000). Advances in the clinical assessment of dissociation: The SCID-D-R. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 64, 146–163.
Steinberg, M., Hall, P., Lareau, C., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Recognizing the validity of dissociative symptoms and disorders using the SCID-D-R: Guidelines for clinical and forensic evaluations. Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal, 10(2), 225–242.
Steuwe, C., Lanius, R. A., & Frewen, P. A. (2012). Evidence for a dissociative subtype of PTSD by latent profile and confirmatory factor analyses in a civilian sample. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 689–700. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21944
Stockdale, G. D., Gridley, B. E., Balogh, D. W., & Holtgraves, T. (2002). Confirmatory factor analysis of single- and multiple-factor competing models of the dissociative experiences scale in a nonclinical sample. Assessment, 9(1), 94–106.
Talbot, J. A., Talbot, N. L., & Xin, T. (2004). Shame-proneness as a diathesis for dissociation in women with histories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(5), 445–448.
Taubman-Ben-Ari, O., Rabinowitz, J., Feldman, D., & Vaturi, R. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder in primary-care settings: prevalence and physicians’ detection. Psychological Medicine, 31(3), 555–560.
Thomas, A. (2001). Factitious and malingered dissociative identity disorder: Clinical features observed in 18 cases. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 2, 59–77.
Tombaugh, T. N. (1997). The Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM): normative data from cognitively intact and cognitively impaired individuals. Psychological Assessment, 9(3), 260–268.
Tomko, R. L., Trull, T. J., Wood, P. K., & Sher, K. J. (2014). Characteristics of borderline personality disorder in a community sample: Comorbidity, treatment utilization, and general functioning. Journal of Personality Disorders, 28(5), 734–750. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2012_26_093.
van Dijke, A., Ford, J. D., van der Hart, O., van Son, M., van der Heijden, P., & Buhring, M. (2012). Complex posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with borderline personality disorder and somatoform disorders. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 162–168.
van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Schuengel, C. (1996). The measurement of dissociation in normal and clinical populations: meta-analytic validation of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES). Clinical Psychology Review, 16(5), 365–382.
Vermetten, E., & Spiegel, D. (2014). Trauma and dissociation: implications for borderline personality disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 16(2), 434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-013-0434-8.
Webermann, A. R., Brand, B. L., & Chasson, G. S. (2014). Childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence in dissociative disorder patients. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5.
Welburn, K. R., Fraser, G. A., Jordan, S. A., Cameron, C., Webb, L. M., & Raine, D. (2003). Discriminating dissociative identity disorder from schizophrenia and feigned dissociation on psychological tests and structured interview. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 4, 109–130.
Wolf, E. J., Lunney, C. A., Miller, M. W., Resick, P. A., Friedman, M. J., & Schnurr, P. P. (2012). The dissociative subtype of PTSD: A replication and extension. [advance online publication]. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 679–688. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21946
Wolf, G. K., Reinhard, M., Cozolino, L. J., Caldwell, A., & Asamen, J. K. (2009). Neuropsychiatric symptoms of complex posttraumatic stress disorder: a preliminary Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory scale to identify adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 1(1), 49–64.
Yehuda, R., & Flory, J. D. (2007). Differentiating biological correlates of risk, PTSD, and resilience following trauma exposure. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(4), 435–447.
Young, G. (2017). PTSD in Court III: Malingering, assessment, and the law. International Journal Of Law And Psychiatry, 5281-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2017.03.001.
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Jager-Hyman, S., Reich, D. B., & Fitzmaurice, G. (2008). The course of dissociation for patients with borderline personality disorder and axis II comparison subjects: a 10-year follow-up study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 118(4), 291–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01247.x.
Zanarini, M. C., Gunderson, J. G., Marino, M. F., Schwartz, E. O., & Frankenburg, F. R. (1989). Childhood experiences of borderline patients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30, 18–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010440X(89)90114-4.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Informed Consent
No human studies were carried out by the authors for this article.
Animal Rights
No animal studies were carried out by the authors for this article.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brand, B.L., Schielke, H.J., Brams, J.S. et al. Assessing Trauma-Related Dissociation in Forensic Contexts: Addressing Trauma-Related Dissociation as a Forensic Psychologist, Part II. Psychol. Inj. and Law 10, 298–312 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-017-9305-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-017-9305-7