Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Current Concepts and Controversies

  • Published:
Psychological Injury and Law Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) sometimes is raised in compensation claims, in tort settings, and in other medical–legal settings. Accordingly, health-care and legal professionals working in these areas need to be familiar with the current findings and controversies concerning the disorder. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, we review the most important findings concerning the clinical features, etiology, and treatment of PTSD. Second, we examine six major controversies concerning the disorder that are relevant to psychologists and other medical–legal practitioners: (a) the issue of what qualifies as a traumatic stressor, (b) the question of whether traumatic stress causes brain damage, (c) the validity of the concept of delayed-onset PTSD, (d) the recovered memory controversy, (e) the question of whether PTSD can arise when the person has no memory of the trauma (e.g., due to concussion), and (f) issues concerning PTSD malingering. Throughout this article we offer recommendations for psychological and other medical–legal practice in relation to the evaluation of PTSD claims.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, R. E., & Bosarino, J. A. (2006). Predictors of PTSD and delayed PTSD after disaster: The impact of exposure and psychosocial resources. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 485–493.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adetunji, B. A., Basil, B., Mathews, M., Williams, A., Osinowo, T., & Oladinni, O. (2006). Detection and management of malingering in a clinical setting. Primary Psychiatry, 13, 61–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., Philpott, R., & Stewart, L. (2007). Delayed-onset posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review of the evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1317–1326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbisi, P. A., Ben-Porath, Y. S., & McNulty, J. (2006). The ability of the MMPI-2 to detect feigned PTSD within the context of compensation seeking. Psychological Services, 3, 249–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asmundson, G. J. G., Stapleton, J. A., & Taylor, S. (2004). Are avoidance and numbing distinct PTSD symptom clusters? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 467–475.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avina, C., & O’Donohue, W. (2002). Sexual harassment and PTSD: Is sexual harassment diagnosable trauma? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 69–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, D. G., West, S. A., Orth, D. N., Hill, K. K., Nicholson, W. E., Ekhator, N. N., et al. (1997). Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma beta endorphin in combat veterans with post traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 22, 517–529.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ballenger, J. C., Davidson, J. R. T., Lecrubier, Y., Nutt, D. J., Foa, E. B., Kessler, R. C., et al. (2000). Consensus statement on posttraumatic stress disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61(Suppl. 5), 60–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basoglu, M., Livanou, M., Salcioglu, E., & Kalender, D. (2003). A brief behavioural treatment of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in earthquake survivors: Results from an open clinical trial. Psychological Medicine, 33, 647–654.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beckham, J. C., Davidson, J. R. T., & March, J. S. (2003). Anxiety disorders: Traumatic stress disorders. In A. Tasman, J. Lieberman, & J. Kay (Eds.) Psychiatry (2nd ed., pp. 1281–1297). London: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bisson, J. I., Ehlers, A., Matthews, R., Pilling, S., Richards, D., & Turner, S. (2007). Psychological treatments for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 97–104.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bozzuto, J. C. (1975). Cinematic neurosis following “The Exorcist”: Report of four cases. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 161, 43–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 214–227.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. D. (2001). Hypotheses and controversies related to effects of stress on the hippocampus: An argument for stress-induced damage to the hippocampus in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Hippocampus, 11, 75–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. D. (2002). Does stress damage the brain?. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N. (2002). Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 47, 923–929.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., & Davis, G. C. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults: Risk factors for chronicity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 671–675.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). The stressor criterion in DSM-IV posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical investigation. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 699–704.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Malady or myth?. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R. (2004). Commentary on McNally’s “Is traumatic amnesia nothing but psychiatric folklore?”. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 33, 102–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748–766.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, N., & McKinlay, W. W. (1992). Mental health consequences of the Lockerbie disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 527–543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, D., Scheflin, A. W., & Hammond, D. C. (1998). Memory, trauma treatment, and the law. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (2002). Delayed-onset posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective evaluation. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36, 205–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (2003). The influence of litigation on maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 191–193.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burkett, B. G., & Whitley, G. (1998). Stolen valor: How the Vietnam generation was robbed of its heroes and its history. Dallas, TX: Verity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, J. N., Dahlstrom, W. G., Graham, J. R., Tellegen, A., & Kaemmer, B. (1989). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2): Manual for administration and scoring. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caffo, E., & Belaise, C. (2003). Psychological aspects of traumatic injury in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Clinics of North America, 12, 493–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carty, J., O’Donnell, M. L., & Creamer, M. (2006). Delayed-onset PTSD: A prospective study of injury survivors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 90, 257–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, Y., Gil, S., Ben-Ari, I. Z., & Koren, D. (2005). Memory of the traumatic event is associated with increased risk for PTSD: A retrospective study of patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 10, 319–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creamer, M., O’Donnell, M. L., & Pattison, P. (2005). Amnesia, traumatic brain injury, and posttraumatic stress disorder: A methodological inquiry. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1383–1389.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dalenberg, C. (2006). Recovered memory and the Daubert criteria: Recovered memory as a professionally test, peer reviewed, and accepted in the relevant scientific community. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 7, 274–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, W. B., Mooney, D., Racusin, R., Ford, J. D., Fleischer, A., & McHugo, G. J. (2000). Predicting posttraumatic stress after hospitalization for pediatric injury. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 576–583.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delahanty, D. L., Raimonde, A. J., & Spoonster, E. (2000). Initial posttraumatic urinary cortisol levels predict subsequent PTSD symptoms in motor vehicle accidents. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 940–947.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A., & Bryant, B. (1998). Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 508–519.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elhai, J. D., Ruggiero, K. J., Frueh, B. C., Beckham, J. C., & Gold, P. B. (2002). The infrequency-posttraumatic stress disorder scale (Fptsd) for the MMPI-2: Development and initial validation with veterans presenting with combat-related PTSD. Journal of Personality Assessment, 79, 531–549.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elhai, J. D., Kashdan, T. B., & Frueh, B. C. (2005). What is a traumatic event? British Journal of Psychiatry, 187, 189–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elhai, J. D., Grubaugh, A. L., Kashdan, T. B., & Frueh, B. C. (2008). Empirical examination of a proposed refinement to posttraumatic stress disorder's symptom criteria using the National Comorbidity Survey Replication data. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.

  • Elliott, D. M. (1997). Traumatic events: Prevalence and delayed recall in the general population. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 811–820.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Davidson, J. R. T., & Frances, A. (1999). Treatment of PTSD: The NIH expert consensus guideline series. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(Suppl. 16), 4–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, D., Creamer, M., Hawthorne, G., Allen, N., & McHugh, T. (2003). Comorbidity as a predictor of symptom change after treatment in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 93–99.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, T., Hart, H., & Kimbrell, T. (2005). Symptom exaggeration in Veterans populations with PTSD: Preliminary findings. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychiatry, University of Arkansas Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR.

  • Frueh, B. C., Hamner, M. B., Cahill, S. P., Gold, P. B., & Hamlin, K. L. (2000). Apparent symptom overreporting in combat veterans evaluated for PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 853–885.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frueh, B. C., Elhai, J. D., Grubaugh, A. L., Monnier, J., Kashdan, T. B., Sauvageot, J. A., et al. (2005). Documented combat exposure of US veterans seeking treatment for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 467–472.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fulcher, G. (2004). Litigation-induced trauma sensitization (LITS)—A potential negative outcome of the process of litigation. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 11, 79–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geracoti, T. D., Baker, D. G., Ekhator, N. N., West, S. A., Hill, K. K., Bruce, A. B., et al. (2001). CSF norepinephrine concentrations in posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1227–1230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geraerts, E., Arnold, M. M., Lindsay, D. S., Merckelbach, H., Jelicic, M., & Hauer, B. (2006). Forgetting of prior remembering in persons reporting recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Science, 17, 1002–1008.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gil, S., Caspi, Y., Ben-Ari, I. Z., Koren, D., & Klein, E. (2005). Does memory of a traumatic event increase the risk for posttraumatic stress disorder in PTSD with traumatic brain injury? A prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 963–969.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbertson, M. W., Shenton, M. E., Ciszewski, A., Kasai, K., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., et al. (2002). Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 1242–1247.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbertson, M. W., Paulus, L. A., Williston, S. K., Gurvits, T. V., Lasko, N. B., Pitman, R. K., et al. (2006). Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: Relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 484–495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grace, M. C., Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., & Leonard, A. C. (1993). The Buffalo Creek disaster: A 14-year follow-up. In J. P. Wilson, & B. Raphael (Eds.) International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 441–449). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, M., Bolton, E. E., & Litz, B. T. (2004). A longitudinal analysis of PTSD symptom course: Delayed-onset PTSD in Somalia peacekeepers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 909–913.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., Grace, M. C., Gleser, G. C., Leonard, A. C., Korol, M., et al. (1990). Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: Stability of stress symptoms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 43–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, R., Buchsbaum, M. S., & Yehuda, R. (2002). Neuroimaging studies in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 25, 317–340.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guriel, J., & Fremouw, W. (2003). Assessing malingered posttraumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 881–904.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R. C. W., & Hall, R. C. W. (2006). Malingering of PTSD: Forensic and diagnostic considerations, characteristics of malingerers and clinical presentations. General Hospital Psychiatry, 28, 525–535.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (2000). Two-year prospective evaluation of the relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 626–628.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (2002). Acute stress disorder: A synthesis and critique. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 886–902.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hembree, E. A., Foa, E. B., Dorfan, N. M., Street, G. P., Tu, X., & Kowalski, J. (2003). Do patients drop out prematurely from exposure therapy for PTSD? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 555–562.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. L. (1997). Trauma and recovery (rev. ed.). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickling, E. J., Blanchard, E. B., Mundy, E., & Galovski, T. E. (2002). Detection of malingered MVA related posttraumatic stress disorder: An investigation of the ability to detect professional actors by experienced clinicians, psychological tests and psychophysiological assessment. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 2, 33–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J. (2001). Stress response syndromes (4th ed.). New Jersey: Aronson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine (2007). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: An assessment of the evidence. Washington, DC: National Academies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jang, K. L., Stein, M. B., Taylor, S., Livesley, W. J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2003). Exposure to traumatic events and experiences: Aetiological relationships with personality function. Psychiatry Research, 120, 61–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joca, S. R. L., Ferreira, F. R., & Guimaraes, F. S. (2007). Modulation of stress consequences by hippocampal monoaminergic, glutamatergic and nitrergic neurotransmitter systems. Stress: The International Journal on the Biology of Stress, 10, 227–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, D. (2000). A series of cases of dementia presenting with PTSD symptoms in World War II combat veterans. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 48, 70–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karon, B. P., & Widener, A. J. (1998). Repressed memories: The real story. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29, 482–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B. E., Amick-McMullan, A., Best, C. L., Veronen, L. J., & Resnick, H. S. (1989). Victim and crime factors associated with the development of crime-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 199–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch, W. J., & Taylor, S. (1995). Assessment and treatment of motor vehicle accident victims. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 2, 327–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Layton, B. S., & Wardi-Zonna, K. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder with neurogenic amnesia for the traumatic event. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9, 2–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lees-Haley, P. R. (1997). MMPI-2 base rates for 492 personal injury plaintiffs: Implications and challenges for forensic assessment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 745–755.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay, S., & Briere, J. (1997). The controversy regarding recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: Pitfalls, bridges, and future directions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 631–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Livanou, M., Basoglu, M., Marks, I. M., de Silva, P., Noshirvani, H., Lovell, K., et al. (2002). Beliefs, sense of control and treatment outcome in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 32, 157–165.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loftus, E. F., & Davis, D. (2006). Recovered memories. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 469–498.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, M. J., Goldberg, J., Eisen, S. A., True, W., Tsuang, M. T., Meyer, J. M., et al. (1993). Do genes influence exposure to trauma? A twin study of combat. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 48, 22–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, H. A., Colotla, V., Flamer, S., & Karlinsky, H. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the workplace: A descriptive study of workers experiencing PTSD from work injury. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 13, 63–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maercker, A., & Mehr, A. (2006). What if victims read a newspaper report about their victimization? A study on the relationship to PTSD symptoms in crime victims. European Psychologist, 11, 137–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, L. R. (2005). Work potential of accident survivors with post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 475–483.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlane, A. C., Atchison, M., & Yehuda, R. (1997). The acute stress response following motor vehicle accidents and its relation to PTSD. Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 821, 437–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarlane, A. C., Yehuda, R., & Clark, C. R. (2002). Biologic models of traumatic memories and post-traumatic stress disorder: The role of neural networks. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 25, 253–270.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMillan, T. M. (1991). Post-traumatic stress disorder and severe head injury. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 431–433.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNally, R. J. (2003). Remembering trauma. Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNally, R. J. (2004). Is traumatic amnesia nothing but psychiatric folklore? Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 33, 97–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNally, R. J., Clancy, S. A., Barrett, H. M., & Parker, H. A. (2005). Reality monitoring in adults reporting repressed, recovered, or continuous memories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 147–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, H. A. (2001). Miller-Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M-FAST): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mittal, D., Torres, R., Abashidze, A., & Jimerson, N. (2001). Worsening of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms with cognitive decline: Case series. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 14, 17–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mol, S. S. L., Arntz, A., Metsemakers, J. F. M., Dinant, G.-J., Vilters-van Monfort, P. A. P., & Knottnerus, J. A. (2005). Symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder after non-traumatic events: Evidence from an open population study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 494–499.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murdoch, M., Polusny, M. A., Hodges, J., & Cowper, D. (2006). The association between in-service sexual harassment and post-traumatic stress disorder among Department of Veterans Affairs disability applicants. Military Medicine, 171, 166–173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nemeroff, C. B. (2004). Neurobiological consequences of childhood trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65(Suppl. 1), 18–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson, K., & Martelli, M. F. (2007). Malingering: Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. In G. Young, A. W. Kane, & K. Nicholson (Eds.) Causality of psychological injury: Presenting evidence in court (pp. 501–508). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nutt, D. J., & Malizia, A. (2004). Structural and functional brain changes in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65(Suppl. 1), 11–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, M., & Nutt, D. (1998). Loss of consciousness and post-traumatic stress disorder: A clue to aetiology and treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 102–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olff, M., Koeter, M. W. J., van Haaften, E. H., Kersten, P. H., & Gersons, B. P. R. (2005). Impact of a foot and mouth disease crisis on post-traumatic stress symptoms in farmers. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 165–166.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozer, E. J., & Weiss, D. S. (2004). Who develops posttraumatic stress disorder? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 169–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pankratz, L. (1998). Patients who deceive: Assessment and management of risk in providing health care and financial benefits. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pare, D., Quirk, G. J., & LeDoux, J. E. (2004). New vistas on amygdala networks in conditioned fear. Journal of Neurophysiology, 92, 1–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parry, J. W. (2006). Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse, coerced confession, and involuntary waiver of Miranda warnings. Mental & Physical Disability Law Reporter, 30, 168–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R. K. (1989). Posttraumatic stress disorder, hormones and memory. Biological Psychiatry, 26, 645–652.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R. K., van der Kolk, B. A., Orr, S. P., & Greenberg, M. S. (1990). Naloxone-reversible analgesic response to combat-related stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 541–544.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., & Nader, K. (1993). Issues in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. In J. P. Wilson, & B. Raphael (Eds.) International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 535–549). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, P. J. (1997). Malingering of posttraumatic disorders. In R. Rogers (Ed.) Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (2nd ed., pp. 130–152). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., & Bauserman, R. (1998). A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 22–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., & Bauserman, R. (2001). The validity and appropriateness of methods, analyses, and conclusions in Rind et al. (1998): A rebuttal of victimological critique from Ondersma et al. (2001) and Dallam et al. (2001). Psychological Bulletin, 127, 734–758.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. (1992). Structured interview of reported symptoms. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, G. M. (2004). Malingering and the PTSD data base. In G. M. Rosen (Ed.) Posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues and controversies (pp. 85–99). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, G. R. (2004–2005). Traumatic events, criterion creep, and the creation of pretraumatic stress. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, 3, 39–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, G. M. (2006). DSM’s cautionary guideline to rule out malingering can protect the PTSD data base. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 530–535.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossman, B. B. R., & Ho, J. (2000). Posttraumatic response and children exposed to parental violence. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 3, 85–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruscio, A. M., Ruscio, J., & Keane, T. M. (2002). The latent structure of posttraumatic stress disorder: A taxometric investigation of reactions to extreme stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 290–301.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruzich, M. J., Looi, J. C. L., & Robertson, M. D. (2005). Delayed onset of posttraumatic stress disorder among male combat veterans: A case series. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13, 424–427.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sala, M., Perez, J., Soloff, P., di Nemi, S. U., Caverzasi, E., Soares, J. C., et al. (2004). Stress and hippocampal abnormalities in psychiatric disorders. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 14, 393–405.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why zebras don’t get ulcers (3rd ed.). New York: Holt Paperbacks.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sbordone, R. J. (1991). Neuropsychology for the attorney. Orland, FL: Deutsch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sbordone, R. J., & Liter, J. C. (1995). Mild traumatic brain injury does not produce post-traumatic stress disorder. Brain Injury, 9, 405–412.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simeon, D., & Abugel, J. (2006). Feeling unreal: Depersonalization disorder and the loss of the self. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, R. I. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder in litigation: Guidelines for forensic assessment (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slovenko, R. (2004). The watering down of PTSD in criminal law. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 32, 411–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., Nicolaou, A. L., & Charney, D. S. (1997). Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of Operation Desert Storm. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 173–177.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. B., Jang, K. L., Taylor, S., Vernon, P. A., & Livesley, W. J. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A general population twin study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1675–1681.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stowe, R., & Taylor, S. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder. Encyclopedia of life sciences. Oxford: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarrier, N., Pilgrim, H., Sommerfield, C., Faragher, B., Reynolds, M., Graham, E., et al. (1999a). A randomized trial of cognitive therapy and imaginal exposure in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 13–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tarrier, N., Sommerfield, C., & Pilgrim, H. (1999b). Relatives’ expressed emotion (EE) and PTSD treatment outcome. Psychological Medicine, 29, 801–811.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. (2004a). Advances in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Cognitive–behavioral perspectives. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. (2004b). Amnesia, folklore, and folks: Recovered memories in clinical practice. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 33, 105–108.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. (2006). Clinician’s guide to treating PTSD: A cognitive–behavioral approach. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., & Koch, W. J. (1995). Anxiety disorders due to motor vehicle accidents: Nature and treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 721–738.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., Fedoroff, I. C., Koch, W. J., Thordarson, D. S., Fecteau, G., & Nicki, R. (2001). Posttraumatic stress disorder arising after road traffic collisions: Patterns of response to cognitive-behavior therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 541–551.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., Wald, J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2006). Factors associated with occupational impairment in people seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 25, 289–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., Frueh, B. C., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2007). Detection and management of malingering in people presenting for treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Methods, obstacles, and recommendations. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 22–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • True, W. R., Rice, J., Eisen, S. A., Heath, A. C., Goldberg, J., Lyons, M. J., et al. (1993). A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 257–264.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Achterberg, M. E., Rohrbaugh, R. M., & Souwick, S. M. (2001). Emergence of PTSD in trauma survivors with dementia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 206–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. A., Greenberg, M. S., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (1989). Endogenous opioids, stress induced analgesia, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 25, 417–421.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Etten, M., & Taylor, S. (1998). Comparative efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 5, 126–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Minnen, A., & Hagenaars, M. (2002). Fear activation and habituation patterns as early process predictors of response to prolonged exposure treatment in PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 359–367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Minnen, A., Arntz, A., & Keijsers, G. P. J. (2002). Prolonged exposure in patients with chronic PTSD: Predictors of treatment outcome and dropout. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 439–457.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vernberg, E. M., La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (1996). Prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after hurricane Andrew. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 237–248.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R. (2002a). Clinical relevance of biologic findings in PTSD. Psychiatric Quarterly, 73, 123–133.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R. (2002b). Current status of cortisol findings in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 25, 341–368.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R. (2004). Risk and resilience in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65(Suppl. 1), 29–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R. (2006). Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A decade of progress. Boston, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A. C., & Shalev, A. Y. (1998). Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1305–1313.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, E. A., & Breslau, N. (2004). Cortisol and catecholamines in posttraumatic stress disorder: An epidemiologic community study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 394–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors express their thanks to Jon Elhai and Gerald Young for their helpful comments on a previous draft of this article.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2A1, Canada

    Steven Taylor

  2. Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies, University of Regina, Regina, SK, S4S 0A2, Canada

    Gordon J. G. Asmundson

Authors
  1. Steven Taylor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gordon J. G. Asmundson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Steven Taylor.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Taylor, S., Asmundson, G.J.G. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Current Concepts and Controversies. Psychol. Inj. and Law 1, 59–74 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-008-9009-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-008-9009-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation